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1  tSK/^NQJM, 

-.r   CALIFORNIA, 

BRARY, 

O-OS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


BULLETIN  No.  58 


TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL 
SERIES  No.  15 


& 


Trade  and  Industrial  Education 

for 

iris  and  Women 


Part  I.  ECONOMIC  AND  SOCIAL  ASPECTS 
OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  FOR 
GIRLS  AND  WOMEN 

Part  2.  WAYS  AND  MEANS  OF  ESTAB- 
LISHING AND  OPERATING  A  PRO- 
GRAM 


Odohr,  1920 


52499 


ISSUED    BY   THE 

FEDERAL  BOARD  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

WASHINGTON 


WASHINQTON  :  GOVERNMENT  PRINTINQ  OFFICE  :  1920 


FEDERAL  BOARD  FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


WiixiAjr  B.  Wu.sox,  CJininv.an. 
Secrettiry  of  Labor. 


Josiiu  V  W.  Alexandek, 

Secretary  of  Commerce. 

Edwi.x  T.  Mkkkditii, 

Secretary  of  Ayricultuie. 

P.  P.  Cr-vxTOx, 

.  Commis.sionor  of  P^ducation. 


Jamks  p.  Muneoe,  Vice  Chairmnn, 
Manufacture  and  Commerce. 

Calvin  F.  McIntosii, 
Agriculture. 

ARTHUR  E.  Holder, 
Labor. 


EXICCUTIVE    STAFF. 


Uel  W.  LAjriviN,  Director. 

Layton   S.   ILwvkins,   Assistant  Director,   Vocational   Education. 

11.  T.  Fisher,  Assi.stant  Directoi",  A'ocatioiial  Rcb.'ibilitation. 

Lewis  H.  Caeris,  Assistant  Director.  Industrial  Rehabilitation. 

C.  H.  Lake,  Cbief,  Agricultural  Education  Service. 

F.  G.  Nichols,  Chief,  C(;mmercial  P^ducation  Service. 

Anna  E.  Richardson,  Chief,  Home  Economics  Education  Service. 

J. 

John 


C.  ^VcuqHT,.; Chief,  ,Iu4ui5tri;al,F,du'e4tio^  Strvic^.  .'  J  1  ,- 
)HN  .eo.M*'i:^G'j,:  Fconbhiist 'and'^Statistici.'Kt.    •    '•'    '-'' 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Foreword 5 

lutroductiou 7 

PAKT  I.   KCONOJIIC  AND  SOCIAL  ASPECTS  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDrCATION   FOR   GIRLS 

AM)     MOJLKN. 

I.  Expansion  of  oiiportunitics  for  vocational  education  for  girls  and 

wonjen  possible  under  tbe  Federal  vocational  education  act 9 

11.  Economic  and  social  aspects  of  vocational  eflr.cation 11 

HI.  Fundamental  distinctions  between  homeraaking  and  industrial  edu- 
cation   16 

IV.  Vocational  education  for  girls  and  women  a  two-fold  problem 20 

V.  Women   in  industry  an  increasingly  important  national  problem — • 

analysis   and   forecast , 22 

I'ART     I*    WAYS    AND     MEANS'    OF    ESTABLISHING    AND    OPERATING    A    PROGRAM 
OF  VOCATIONAL  EDICATION  FOR   CilRLS   AND   WOMEN. 

I.  Fundamental  principles  of  Federal  aid 35 

II.  Organization  for  administration  to  secure  the  benefits  of  appropria- 
tions  1 35 

HI.  Funds  available  for  distribution 36 

IV.  General  provisions  of  the  vocational  education  act 37 

V.  Special  provisions  for  trade  anil  industrial  education 38 

^'I.  Types  of  vocational  schools  and  training  agencies 48 

Evening  schools  and  classes 50 

Courses  for  table  or  counter  service 53 

The  all-day  vocational  school  or  department 56 

Course  of  study  in  telegraphy 65 

Course  of  study  in  mechanical  drafting 65 

Part-time  schools  and  classes: 

The  field  for  part-time  education 6G 

The  girl,  the  job,  and  the  part-time  school 74 

Specialized  part-time  instruction ^  78 

Training  in  industrial  plants 80 

MAPS   AND  DIAGRAMS. 

Compulsory  part-time  school  legislation  in  the  States 4 

IMininunn  wage  legislation  in  the  States ]3 

Legal  limitation  of  working  hours  for  women  in  the  States 15 

Industrial  distribution  of  gainfully  employed  women  and  girls  10  years 

of  age  and  over:  1010 24 

iiainfully  employed  woineji  and  girls  10  years  of  age  and  over,  by  States 25 

Women  and  girls  K)  years  of  age  and  over  employed  in  specified  manu- 
facturing ami  mechanical  pursuits:  1910 27 

APPENDICES. 

A.  >^ynopsis SO 

B.  Classified  bibliography — Women  in  industry 100 

Available  bulletins  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 105 

3 


FOREWOED. 

By  tlie  provisions  of  the  A'ocational  education  act,  enacted  Feb- 
ruary 23,  1917,  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  is 
charged  with  the  dut}-  of  disbursing  Federal  moneys  to  the  States  for 
approved  instruction  in  trade  and  industrial  education  of  less  than 
college  grade,  and  of  promoting  in  cooperation  vritli  the  States  the 
establishment  of  such  instruction. 

The  bulletins  on  organization  and  administration  of  trade  and 
industrial  education  (Nos.  17,  18,  19)  were  prepared  in  sufficiently 
broad  terms  to  indicate  tliat  the  policies  of  tlie  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education  applied  to  instruction  for  girls  and  women 
as  well  as  for  men  and  boys. 

Accurate  information  relative  to  the  changes  in  the  employment  of 
women  accelerated  by  the  war  is  not  available  at  present.  However, 
the  public  is  becoming  increasingly  aware  of  the  extent  to  which 
industry  is  dependent  upon  women  workers. 

In  consideration  of  this  fact,  this  bulletin  has  been  prepared  by 
Mrs.  Anna  Lalor  Burdick,  special  agent  for  trade  and  industrial 
education.  It  presents  the  background  of  industrial  education  for 
women,  some  of  the  attendant  problems  and  the  program  which 
is  i^ossible  under  the  terms  of  the  Federal  act. 

The  manuscript  was  presented  in  conference  before  a  group  of 
men  and  women  representing  tlie  Federal  Board,  the  State  authori- 
ties, and  the  local  community. 

For  criticism  and  helpful  suggestions  acknowledgment  is  due  to 
I^'Iiss  Cleo  Murtland,  associate  professor  of  industrial  education.  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan ;  and  to  the  women  who  reviewed  tlie  manuscript : 

Miss  Mary  Anderson,  director,  "Woman's  Bureau,  United  States 
Department  of  Labor,  "Washington. 

Miss  Griselda  Ellis,  principal  A'ocational  School  for  Girls, 
Newark,  N.  J. 

Miss  Mary  Gilson,  superintendent  employment  and  service,  Joseph 
&  Feiss  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Miss  Elizabeth  Fish,  principal  Girls'  Vocational  High  School, 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Miss  Isabel  Ely  Lord,  director  School  of  Household  Sciences  and 
Arts,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

5 


6  rOREWOKD. 

Mrs.  Iris  Proiity  O'Leary,  special  agent  Vocational  Education  for 
Girls,  Trenton,  N.  J. 

JSliss  Ethel  M.  Smith,  secretary,  legislative  committee,  National 
"Woman's  Trade  Union  League,  Washington. 

IVIrs.  Eva  Whiting  White,  educational  director,  College  Settle- 
ment, New  York. 

Tliis  bulletin  may  be  considered  as  an  official  answer  to  the  many 
inquiries  concerning  matters  of  policy  in  trade  and  industrial  educa- 
tion for  girls  and  women  received  by  the  office  of  the  Federal  Board. 

L.  S.  Hawkins, 
Assistant  Director,  Vocational  Education. 


I 


TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS  AND 

WOMEN. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  attention  of  the  public  is  focused  sharply  upon  women  wage 
earners. 

The  most  casual  observer  has  not  failed  to  note  the  expansion  in 
numbers  of  women  employed,  the  influx  of  inexperienced  workers 
into  new  fields  of  labor,  the  redistribution  of  working  women  in  dif- 
ferent occupations,  the  actual  changes  in  the  industrial  processes, 
and  the  degree  to  which  industry  is  becoming  reorganized  on  a  new 
basis  so  as  to  include  women  workers  among  employees.  This  social 
and  economic  movement  of  our  day  is  placing  tremendous  responsi- 
bilities upon  society'  for  the  construction  of  a  program  of  purposeful 
education  that  will  insure  the  best  type  of  womanhood,  and  main- 
tain tlie  integrity  of  the  woman  worker. 

An  increasing  interest  in  the  development  of  a  program  for  voca- 
tional education  as  it  affects  these  girls  and  women  is  shown  by  the 
number  of  national  organizations  which  have  recorded  their  approval 
and  support  of  the  Federal  vocational  education  act.  This  cumu- 
lative weight  of  public  opinion  shoidd  encourage  States  and  local 
communities  to  proceed  to  the  organization  and  establishment  of 
vocational  courses  and  schools  commensurate  with  the  needs  of 
women  Avorkers  and  the  numbers  involved. 

The  educational  advantages  provided  under  the  terms  of  this  act 
are  extended  to  both  men  and  women.  Hence,  the  interpretations  and 
policies  already  set  forth,  in  Bulletins  Nos.  1,  17,  18,  and  19,^  are  ap- 
plicable to  all  workers  without  regard  to  sex.  These  policies  are 
simply  restated  here  in  terms  applicable  to  the  organization  and 
operation  of  a  vocational  education  program  for  girls  and  women. 

*  rublications  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  ICducation  : 
Bulletin  No.   1 :  Statement  of   rolicies. 

Bulletin  No.  17:  Tradi^  and  Industrial  Education — Organizalion  and  Administration. 
Bulletin   No.   18  :   Eveiiins  Industrial   Scliools. 
Bulletin  No.  19  :  Fart-lime  Trade  and  Industrial  Education, 

7 


I 


PART  I. 

ECONOMIC    AND    SOCIAL    ASPECTS    OE    VOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 
FOB  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN. 

I.  ExPANSiox  OF  Opportunities  for  Vocational  Education  for 
Girls  and  Women  Possible  Under  the  Federal  Vocational 
Education  Act, 

The  Federal  vocational  education  act  was  passed  in  order  to  provide 
an  opportunity  for  the  preparation  and  improvement  of  workers  for 
effective  participation  in  wage-earning  pursuits.  It  likewise  antici- 
pated the  continuous  development  and  expansion  of  the  industries  of 
the  United  States. 

The  act  provides  for  the  development  of  two  services.  The  first 
of  these  is  the  administration  of  Federal  funds  to  encourage  States 
to  inaugurate  schools  and  classes  designed  primarily  (a)  to  prepare 
persons  for  entrance  to  a  chosen  field  of  employment,  through  day 
trade  classes;  (h)  to  increase  the  trade  and  technical  knowledge  of 
those  already  employed,  through  part-time  and  evening  schools;  {c) 
to  prepare  teachers,  supervisors,  and  directors  for  the  organization 
and  conduct  of  such  classes.  The  second  service  is  to  extend,  through 
State  and  local  authorities,  the  friendly  offices  of  the  Federal  Board 
for  Vocational  Education  to  industries  interested  in  developing  pro- 
grams for  training  their  own  workers.  For  this  purpose  the  act  pro- 
vides for  the  making  of  studies,  investigations,  and  reports  with 
particular  reference  to  the  determination  of  courses  of  instruction 
and  the  establishment  of  classes  in  the  four  general  industrial  fields, 
nameh',  (1)  agriculture,  (2)  trade  and  industry,  (3)  commerce,  and 
(4)  home  economics. 

The  passage  of  the  act  in  February,  1917,  came  simultaneously 
with  a  national  aAvakening  and  at  a  time  when  social,  economJc,  and 
educational  institutions  were  being  brought  to  a  strict  accounting 
for  their  contributions  to  our  national  efliciency. 

The  crisis  of  the  war  brought  into  the  Nation's  consciousness  a 
realization  of  the  extent  to  which  women  were  responsible  for  con- 
servation and  production  of  the  common  commodities.  The  essential 
task  of  conservation,  complicated  by  an  increased  cost  of  the  necessi- 
ties of  life,  made  insistent  claims  upon  the  homemaker.  Necessity 
for  increased  production  with  a  constantly  diminishing  labor  supply 
made  heavy  demands  upon  wage-earning  women.    These  sudden  and 

9 


10  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

iiniisiiiil  demands  effected  a  redih-tribution  of  workers  by  transfer 
from  nonessential  industries,  or  change  in  type  of  employment,  and 
developed  a  labor  supply  to  meet  the  demand.  This  redistri])ution 
created  tlie  necessity  for  training  for  the  new  and  diversified  fields 
of  work  into  which  Avomen  were  being  drawn,  and  in  which  they  are 
now  extensively  engaged.  The  employment  of  women  in  these  occu- 
pations puts  upon  the  community  the  responsibility  for  establisliing 
and  maintaining  suitable  training  for  them.  Communities  meeting 
this  responsibility  are  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the  trade  and  in- 
dustrial fund  provided  under  the  Federal  act. 

Three  types  of  training  have  been  recognized  up  to  the  present 
time  as  serving  the  needs  of  the  various  groups  of  employees  Avhich 
modern  industrial  organization  demands.  These  types  of  training 
have  been  developed  for  three  groups  of  'vorkers:  (1)  For  technical 
experts,  (2)  for  the  producers,  and  (3)  for  the  supervisory  officers. 

Training  women  for  technical  positions  in  industrial  employment 
lias  been  limited,  is  comparatively  recent,  and  has  been  coincident 
with  industrial  specialization. 

Training  of  producers  or  operatives  is  still  largely  unorganized, 
incidental,  and  confined  chiefly  to  a  method  of  permitting  them  to 
participate  in  productive  processes.  In  the  well-established  tradi- 
tional trades,  trade  education  was  begun  by  private  agencies  as  a 
means  of  improving  the  condition  of  the  worker;  while  in  factory 
occupations  it  was  the  outgrowth  of  necessity  to  meet  an  emergency 
resulting  from  demands  for  an  increased  output  A^ith  inexperienced 
Avorkers. 

The  trainiiig  of  women  for  supervisory  positions  in  employment 
and  production  departments,  though  of  recent  development,  has 
demonstrated  its  value  by  the  results  which  women  in  personnel  work 
obtained  by  their  intelligent  selection,  placing,  and  training  of 
workers.  As  one  of  the  beneficial  contributions  of  the  war,  this 
scheme  should  be  continued. 

The  history  of  vocational  education  hitherto  has  been  marked  by 
the  neglect  of  workers  in  factory  occupations.  Increasing  consump- 
tion of  factory  products  demands  increased  production.  This  in 
turn  multiplies  the  quota  of  women  Avorkers.  The  issue  has  been 
evaded  by  classifying  these  operatives  as  unskilled  and  practically 
out  of  reach  of  training.  It  is  a  demonstrable  fact  that  for  the 
better-trained  Avorker  and  supervisor  there  is  a  Avider  opportunity 
for  choice  and  greater  assurance  of  promotion.  Since  training  in 
these  tAvo  fields  for  producers  and  for  supervisory  officers  concerns 
the  Avorker  already  employed,  Avherever  men  and  women  are  engaged 
in  the  same  occupations,  the  same  opportunities  and  provisions  for 
training  may  be  offered  to  both.    By  this  policy  provision  is  made  for 


FOR  GIKLS  AND  WOMEN.  11 

the  development  of  a  vocational-education  program  commensurate 
with  the  horizon  of  women's  work. 

II.  Economic  and  Social  Aspects  of  Vocational  Education. 

Certain  economic  and  social  forces  have  at  times  served  to  accel- 
erate or  retard  the  evohition  resulting  from  the  entrance  of  women 
into  paid  occupations.  Four  steps  in  the  cycle  of  tlie  progression  are 
distinguishable  :  (1)  Economic  stress  forces  women  workers  into  new 
fields;  (2)  society  comes  to  accept  their  presence  as  a  fact;  (3)  private 
enterprise  demonstrates  the  possibilities  of  educational  training  and 
preparation;    (4)   public  agencies  ultimately  assume  this  service. 

During  the  Civil  War,  because  of  the  shortage  of  men  and  their 
indisposition  after  the  war  to  reenter  the  profession,  women  became 
dominant  in  the  teaching  profession  and  have  since  remained  so. 
With  the  advent  of  the  sewing  machine  and  ready-to-wear  garments, 
women  went  into  the  garment  factories,  and  also  found  a  new  field 
for  their  services  as  saleswomen  in  department  stores.  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  telephone,  the  typewriter,  the  multigraph,  the  telegraph, 
and  other  ofRce  appliances  has  added  to  the  numbers  of  women  em- 
ployed in  wage-earning  pursuits.  As  each  group  of  workers  became 
permanent,  the  need  for  training  was  recognized.  Normal  training 
was  instituted  for  teachers;  commercial  classes  were  inaugurated  by 
private  schools  and  colleges.  Thougli  social  disapproval  of  com- 
mercial education  for  the  girl  has  been  a  decided  barrier  to  its  proo-- 
ress,  it  has  now  become  an  established  branch  of  the  public-school 
curriculum. 

In  industrial  centers  where  women  workers  are  most  numerous, 
the  evil  results  of  permitting  girls  14  to  16  years  old  to  enter  the 
industrial  world  ungnided,  unguarded,  unadvised,  and  untrained 
has  created  a  sentiment  favorable  to  an  extension  of  the  educational 
program  to  include  trade  instruction  in  day,  part-time,  and  evenino" 
schools  together  with  provisions  for  guidance  and  placement.  Day 
trade  schools  for  girls  are  comparatively  few,  and  schools  offering 
industrial  courses  as  part  of  their  work  are  not  common.  This  is 
partly  due  to  the  long-prevailing  public  attitude  that  the  industrial 
world  is  not  the  place  for  women,  and  that  a  training  Avhich  fitted 
them  for  anything  but  home  life  would  be  highly  undesirable.  As 
their  presence  became  an  accepted  fact,  it  was  felt  that  individually 
their  periods  of  service  in  industry  prior  to  withdrawal  into  their 
OAvn  homes  were  generally  too  brief  to  warrant  specific  trade  training. 
Though  women  are  found  in  increasing  numbers  in  ahnost  all  pro- 
ductive industries,  yet  comparative!)^  few  occupations  demanding 
specialized  training  have  been  open  to  them.    In  man}-  cases  a  gen- 


12  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

oral  conviction  that  girls  should  have,  or  were  demanding,  some  voca- 
tional training  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  traditional  trades, 
dressmaking  and  millinery — into  schools  with  little  consideration  of 
local  conditions  of  \\-ork,  wages,  or  chances  of  employment.  There 
has  been  little  recognition  of  training  possibilities  for  vocations  that 
might  offer  better  opportunities  for  girls." 

Enlarging  the  scope  of  women's  work  has  been  a  matter  of  break- 
ing down  prejudices  on  the  part  of  the  employer  and  of  the  worker 
herself,  a  matter  of  reforming  social  attitudes  toward  different  types 
of  employment  and  of  recognizing  that  training  is  both  necessary 
and  desirable  for  the  occupations  in  which  w^omen  are  engaged. 
Again  under  the  stress  of  war,  the  public  has  accei:)ted  many  situ- 
ations Avithout  debate,  and  has  revised  and  readjusted  its  standards. 
Out  of  this  reconstructed  social  and  educational  background  a  pro- 
gram of  education  for  fields  of  work  in  which  women  are  now  em- 
plo3'ed  is  being  formulated. 

It  is  clearly  seen  that  the  problems  of  employment  and  training  of 
women  workers  are  numerous,  tliat  they  are,  from  the  standpoint  of 
social  psychology,  economic  organization,  and  educational  adjust- 
ment, intricate  and  complex. 

The  girl  wage  earner  is  characterized  by  youth,  inexperience,  and 
limited  school  attainment.  She  is  usually  limited  to  a  local  market 
for  her  labor.  She  meets  with  sharp  competition,  and  receives  a 
meager  wage  because  she  is  considered  to  be  part  of  a  family  group, 
merely  a  contributor  to  her  own  support.^  Matrimonial  expectancy 
is  a  chance  factor  causing  her  employment  to  be  regarded  by  all  par- 
ties concerned  as  casual  or  temporary.  Because  of  social  attitudes 
toward  her  and  her  work,  she  tends  to  develop  into  an  opportunist 
with  attention  and  interest  centered  in  the  immediate.  Though  she 
oftentimes  assumes  financial  responsibilities  at  home;'*  yet  she  is  dis- 
inclined to  seek  out  more  complicated  work  or  greater  responsibili- 
ties in  the  field  of  her  labor.  Her  indifference  to  greater  responsi- 
bilities and  their  rewards  and  her  apathy  toward  planning  for  future 
advancement  is  a  reflection  of  the  spirit  of  society  toward  her  as  a 
worker. 

Then,  too,  industrial  employment  is  underrated  as  a  field  of  service 
to  society.  A  pay  envelope  should  stand  for  a  contribution  to 
economic  values  through  quantity  and  quality  of  production  or 
service.  It  is  a  return  for  a  service  rendered  under  conditions  ap- 
proved of  by  society  as  suitable  to  insure  the  well-being  of  the 


2  Report  of  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor, 
1012.    Senate  Document  93G.  second  session.  Sixty-second  Congress,  pp.  02,  92. 

=  Five  Tlieories  of  Women's  Wages,  Dorothy  Douglas.  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics, 
February,  1920. 

*  Survey  of  Wage-earning  Girls  Below  Sixteen  Tears  of  Age,  in  Wilkes-Barro,  Pa. 
1915.     Sarah  H.  Atherton.     National  Consumers'  League,  New  York,  pp.  14  and  15. 


rOR  GIRLS   AXD  WOMEX, 


13 


14  TRADE  A^D  IXDUSTPJAL   EDUCATION 

Avoiker  ill  fulfilling  her  obligation  to  society.  This  pay  envelope 
assures  the  girl  that  she  has  made  a  contribution  which  the  \vorld 
recognizes  and  upon  Avhich  it  has  set  a  measurable  value. 

Social  workers  and  economists  have  seen  the  necessity  for  'bringing 
to  the  attention  of  employers  and  consumers  the  current  difficu.lties 
encountered  bv  girls  and  "women  in  industry.  Through  their  efforts 
a  program  o/ legislation  is  being  developed  to  protect  the  present 
worke'r  in  the  light  of  her  future  potentialities.  See  map  on  ]iage  13 
showing  extent  of  minimum  Avage  legislati(m  in  the  I  Jiitocl  States, 
and  a  map  on  page  15  showing  the  legal  limitations  of  working  hours 
for  women  in  the  States. 

Having  no  background  of  experience  on  which  to  base  her  judg- 
ments, the  young  worker  has  been  a  poor  bargainer.  On  the  basis 
that  the  girl  should  not  work  until  she  is  able  to  earn  a  living  wage— 
the  age  of  compulsory  scliool  attendance  has  been  raised,  and  the 
issuance  of  work  permits  has  been  assumed  as  a  part  of  public  school 
duties.  Educational  supervision  has  been  extended  to  the  working 
o-roup  for  a  limited  i)eriod  providing  both  instruction  and  protective 

measures. 

Minimum-wage  legislation  tends  to  keep  the  girl  in  school  longer; 
to  increase  the  age  of  entrance  into  employment ;  to  raise  the  average 
intelligence  of  the  beginning  worker:  and  to  make  possible  an  in- 
structional program  fitting  for  employment  or  related  to  the  daily 
occupation. 

Some  States  anticipating  the  value  of  training  to  the  worker,  the 
cost  of  which  the  industry  should  bear,  have  provided  that  the  learn- 
ing period  be  determined,  and  that  the  employer  provide  reasonable 
opportunity  for  the  progression  of  tlie  worker.  It  is  the  work  of 
the  educational  agent  of  any  State  industrial  conmiission  to  see  that 
this  period  is  neither  too  short,  thereby  working  an  injustice  to  the 
employer,  nor  too  long,  thereby  retarding  the  advancement  of  the 
worker.  Close  scrutiny  of  occupations  in  indiLstry  and  their  de- 
mands upon  the  Avorker  are  necessary  to  determine  the  normal  period.' 

Minimum  wage  indirectly  brings  about  a  more  careful  selection 
of  workers  in  order  that  a  larger  amount  of  business  may  be  handled 
by  fewer  workers  who  will  receive  in  turn  the  added  advantage  of 
occupational  training. 

Society  recognizes  its  right  to  insure  itself  against  low  standards 
of  intelligence,  intellectual  Avaste,  and  human  Avreckage.  Through 
social-educational  legislation  it  protects  itself  as  a  unit  by  .safe- 
guarding the  interests  of  groups. 

"Minimum  Wage  Commissions.  Current  Facts,  Jannary,  1020,  Consumers'  Leaguo, 
p.  3.  Thirteen  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia  have  some  form  of  minimum  wage 
legislation. 


FOR  GIRLS   AXD   WOMKN. 


15 


16  TRADE  AND   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

To  this  eiul,  (lurino;  the  war,  England  j^assed  measures  requiring 
compulsory  daj^-school  attendance  until  lO  years  of  ao;e,  and  part- 
time  instruction  of  juvenile  workers  between  the  ages  of  14  and  18.* 
Dui-ing  tlie  last  year  this  movement  has  spread  rajjidly  in  the  United 
States.  At  the  present  time  19  states'  have  provided  compidsory 
instruction  from  four  to  eight  jiours  per  vceek  during  the  regular 
liours  of  the  working  day.  (See  map  on  p.  4.)  Though  this  period 
may  seem  relatively  short,  it  is  sufficient  t«  establish  the  fact  that  the 
cliild  is  a  responsibility  of  the  State,  amenal>le  to  its  demands,  subject 
to  its  discipline  and  protection;  that  she  has  not  reached  tlie  status 
of  the  adult  Avage  earner  upon  entrance  into  employment,  but  reserves 
her  greatest  contribution  to  society  for  her  maturer  years. 

Educators  and  the  people  as  sponsors  of  education  must  recognize 
the  bearings  which  these  social  and  economic  factors  have  upon  the 
inauguration  and  operation  of  a  program  of  vocational  education 
for  girls  and  women  as  provided  under  the  terms  of  the  Eederal 
vocational  act. 

IIJ,    FuNi)A>rj;XTAL.  DiSTIXCTIOXS    1)ETWEEX    lIoMKMAKTXG    AND 
IXDUSTRIAL  Eui  CATION. 

A  consideration  of  the  ])ursuits  in  Avhich  women  are  engaged,  and 
of  the  probable  demands  u\)on  their  lal)or,  is  necessary  to  the  formula- 
tion of  an  educationt'il  i)rogram  for  them  as  workers. 

lu  the  main  historical  development  presents  two  types  of  wage- 
earning  occn]:)ations  for  Avomen,  namely  those  which  Avere  originally 
household  occu[)ations  and  those  Avhich  have  had  an  industrial  origin 
in<lependent  of  the  household. 

AVoman  has  always  been  a  factor  in  industiial  life.  As  a  producer 
in  the  early  stages  of  industrial  development  she  Avas  engaged  in 
varied  processes  relating  to  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  for  her  family 
Avithin  her  oAvn  houseliold.,  and  she  has  moreover  been  employed  in  all 
the  diversilied  occupations  Avhich  center  around  the  care  and  rearing 
of  children.  ^Vhen  the  home  Avas  the  center  of  industry,  her  training 
for  homemaking  Avas  ol)tained  through  assistance  in  the  varied  house- 
hold tasks;  her  indiistrial  training  Avas  gained  by  participation  in  the 
])ro(hictiv"e  Avork  carried  on  in  the  home.  Thus  homemaking  and  in- 
dustrial occupation  Avere  sui)plementary  and  interdependent.  The 
girl's  indenture  for  ap]irenticeslii]\  unlike  that  of  a  boy,  did  not 
stipulate  that  she  Avas  to  be  taught  a  specific  trade,  lience  slie  received 

«  School  and  Society,  A'ol.  XI,  No.  264,  p.  88,  .Taiuiary  17,  1920.  TJncloi-  section  10  of 
tli(!  Gdueation  act  (Great  Biitain)  passed  August  7,  1018,  an  obligation  is  laid  on  every 
young  person  between  14  and  1(!  years  of  ago,  who  is  not  receiving  equivalent  education 
elsewhere,  to  attend  a  continuation  school  for  320,  or  at  least  280,  hours  each  year.  In 
seven  years  after  this  section  comes  into  operation  the  number  of  hours  must  be  -520  in 
each  year,  and  the  pupils  must  attend  up  to  18,  instead  of  10  years  of  age, 

'  Wisconsin  passed  the  first  law  in  1011. 


FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN".  '  17 

a  general  training  in  spinning,  weaving,  and  numerous  otlier  house- 
hold tasks.®  Schools  for  spinning,  Aveaving,  straw  phiiting,  etc.,  were 
developed  in  accordance  with  Puritan  ideals  of  "  cultivating  the  vir- 
tue of  industry"  and  avoiding  "the  sins  of  idleness.""  To-day  so- 
ciety recognizes  the  responsibility  of  the  schools  for  training  in  home- 
making  occupations,  but  has  not  yet  recognized  the  responsibility  for 
industrial  training — leaving  this  to  industry.  The  paramount  prob- 
lems of  food  and  clothing  in  the  home,  most  of  which  are  matters  of 
selection  and  conservation,  are  frequently  misconstrued  as  problems 
of  production.  Failure  to  recognize  these  changed  conditions  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  confusion  that  commonlj^  prevails  relative  to  the 
fundamental  differences  between  preparation  for  the  duties  of  the 
home  as  it  exists  to-day,  and  preparation  for  modern  industrial  life. 

The  congestion  of  population  in  urban  centers,  and  the  demand  for 
increased  production  have  alike  wrought  changes  in  the  home  and  in 
industry.  Former  household  activities  have  become  specialized  occu- 
pations, some  of  which  have  been  forced  into  mills  and  factories, 
whole  industries  being  organized  about  them.  Throngs  of  women 
now  find  a  livelihood  in  these  occupations  and  a  market  for  their 
labor. 

The  second  group  of  women's  employments  includes  those  occupa- 
tions which  never  have  been  carried  on  as  home  processes,  but  which 
are  a  development  of  modern  industrial  organization  with  its  array 
of  specialized  machines,  appliances,  and  devices  for  increasing  pro- 
duction, facilitating  records,  and  developing  clerical  efficiency  in 
ofnce  administration.  The  use  of  power-driven  machines  in  weaving, 
knitting,  stitching,  printing,  watchmaking,  jewelry,  and  metal 
trades,  together  with  the  use  of  the  telegraph,  typewriter,  comp- 
tometer, adding  machine,  etc.,  has  created  types  of  occupations  in 
fields  which  were  originally  occupied  by  men,  but  which  have  been 
talven  over  by  women  operatives  as  specialized  machines  have  made 
possible  the  use  of  women's  labor.  These  have  been  recognized  as 
women's  occupations  in  proportion  as  men  have  been  diverted  to 
other  fields.  The  social  stigma  attached  to  their  pursuit  has 
diminished. 

As  women  have  entered  into  industrial  emplo3^ment  outside  the 
hom.e  there  has  arisen  a  tendency  to  legislate  and  regulate  certain 
conditions  for  the  protection  of  the  women  workers  and  of  society. 
These  measures  usually  antedate  the  consideration  of  industrial 
training,  and  while  they  modify  the  standards  of  employment  they 
are  in  no  sense  a  substitute  for  the  benefits  accruing  to  the  worker 
from  education,  and  should  not  be  so  regarded.     Training  for  those 

*  Willystine  Goodsell  :  The  Family  as  a  Social  and  Educational  Institution,  p.  402. 
« Spinning   school    established    in    Boston,    1720,   by    public   philanthi-opist.     School    for 
straw  plaiting  established  iu  Baltimore,  1824. 

10787°— 20 2 


18  TRADE   x\ND   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATIOi^ 

industries  wliicli  remain  in  the  home  in  a  limited  degree — cooking 
and  sewing — has  developed  as  home-making  education.  When  the 
demand  arose  for  preparing  the  girl  for  wage  earning,  the  same 
instruction  Avas  assumed  to  be  adequate,  thus  circumscribing  the 
courses  offered  and  establishing  a  barrier  to  further  educational  ex- 
periment in  the  field  of  industrial  education. 

Employments  in  the  home  and  in  industry,  though  emanating 
from  the  same  sources,  are  progressing  along  widely  divergent 
lines.  The  home  maker  is  becoming  increasingly  a  consumer  of 
goods  and  of  service,  Avhile  the  wage  earner  either  is  relegated  to 
productive  employment  outside  the  horizon  of  the  household,  or 
becomes  a  purveyor  of  a  limited  service  to  large  numbers. 

Industry  has  become  institutionalized  largely  to  the  degree  to 
whicli  mechanical  appliances  have  superseded  hand  labor.  Thus 
spinning,  weaving,  laiitting,  dyeing,  garment  m.alving,  shoe  making, 
dairying,  food  packing,  canning,  baking,  laundering,  and  the  like, 
are  to-day  industries  of  tremendous  proportions,  in  which  woman 
is  not  a  new  factor  but  a  changed  factor.  She  is  employed  in  opera- 
tive and  directive  positions  requiring  varying  degrees  of  responsi- 
bility and  skill,  both  in  production  and  in  distribution  of  output. 

Service  activities  of  the  home  have  become  segregated  and  institu- 
tionalized. Schools  are  maintained  for  educational  purposes ;  hosj^i- 
tals  for  care  of  the  sick ;  churches  for  public  worship ;  theaters,  play- 
grounds, parks,  museums,  and  libraries  for  recreational  purposes;  tea 
rooms,  clubs,  and  cafes  supplement  the  hospitality  of  the  home.  To 
meet  these  needs  we  have  a  suitable  host  of  trained  workers — teachers, 
nurses,  play-ground  directors,  social  workers,  librarians,  dietitians, 
caterers,  waitresses,  etc.  Each  class  of  workers  may  again  be  divided 
according  to  the  particular  service  rendered.  These  services  would 
be  impossible  on  any  other  basis  than  that  of  service  to  groups  and 
specialization.  It  is  a  complicated  problem  for  the  home,  to  establish 
itself  in  right  relationships  among  these  manifold  agencies  whose 
expert  service  it  has  power  to  command. 

Public  utilities  and  the  distribution  of  common  commodities  have 
become  departmentalized  through  cooperative  and  concerted  action. 
The  controllable  factors  of  environment  which  have  bearing  on 
health,  safety,  housing,  light,  Avater,  transportation,  etc.  have  been 
standardized.  The  multiple  recording,  classifying,  assembling, 
checking,  and  distributing  necessary  to  carry  on  these  commercial 
enterprises  are  handled  largel}'  by  Avomen  employed  in  various  types 
of  office  and  store  service. 

With  this  increasingly  complex  organization  of  society,  the  home 
can  not  maintain,  through  diversified  occupations,  its  traditional  iso- 
lation and  independence.  The  home  maker  must  assume  a  responsi- 
bilit}'  toAvard  the  problems  of  the  Avage  earners,  toward  civic  enter- 


FOR  GIRLS   AND  WOMEN".  19 

prises,  and  toward  municipal  housekeeping.  Either  she  becomes  a 
factor  in  them,  or  the  home  and  society  suffer  because  of  her  intro- 
spective isolation.  Vocational  home  economics  education  has  taken 
cognizance  of  these  facts,  and  has  formulated  a  program  upon  an 
analysis  of  the  work  and  functions  of  the  homemaker. 

Any  analysis  of  the  vocation  of  home  making  will  demonstrate  clearly  that  it 
is  a  composite  vocation  embi-acing  a  wide  range  of  vitally  essential  social  serv- 
ices, which  devolve  specially  iiix)n  women  in  their  capacity  as  home  makers. 
In  general,  these  include  the  following  fairly  separate  and  distinct  lines  of 
vocational  activity : 

(a)  The  care  and  rearing  of  children. 

( b )  The  care  of  the  house  and  its  equipment. 

(c)  The  selection,  preparation,  and  serving  of  food. 

(d)  The  selection  and  care  of  clothing,  and  to  some  extent  its  actual  con- 

struction. 

(c)  The  cai*e  of  the  health  of  the  family. 

Home  making  is  also  a  business  and  a  social  enterprise.  As  the  manager 
of  a  business  enterprise,  the  home  maker  must  determine  the  expenditure 
of  the  family  income  and  must  direct  or  perform  the  labor  involved  in 
running  the  plant.  As  a  partner  at  the  head  of  a  social  and  civic  unit,  she 
4s  very  largely  responsible  for  the  educational,  moral,  and  social  standards 
of  the  home." 

It  can  be  readily  observed  that  occupations  differentiated  in  indus- 
trial service  and  in  commercial  employment  differ  radically  from  the 
occupation  of  the  home  maker.  The  differences  which  characterize 
training  along  these  several  lines  are  consequent  upon  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  distinct  character  of  the  occupations  them- 
selves. The  group  whose  well-being  and  comfort  is  to  be  conserved 
by  the  home  maker  is  bound  together  in  domestic  relationships  by 
family  ties  involving  intimate  and  unselfish  concessions  on  the  part 
of  its  individual  members. 

The  fundamental  distinction  between  liome  economics  education  and  certain 
forms  of  industrial  education  for  women's  trades  inheres  in  the  occupations 
themselves.  As  has  been  stated  before,  home  making  is  a  composite  of  undif- 
ferentiated occupations  I'equiring  various  forms  of  skill  and  of  related  knowl- 
edge. The  wage-earning  occupations,  such  as  dressmaking,  catering,  practical 
nursing,  millinery,  etc.,  are  specialized  occupations  requiring  a  high  degree 
of  special  skill  in  one  field,  together  with  related  knowledge  in  that  field. 
The  aim  of  home  economics  education  is  preparation  for  the  work  of  the 
house  daughter,  home  maker,  or  liousehold  assistant  employed  in  this  com- 
posite vocation.  The  aim  of  above  forms  of  industrial  education  is  preparation 
for  wage  earning  in  these  specialized  occupations.  Distinctions  between  home 
making  schools  and  industrial  or  trade  schools  for  girls  may  be  made  upon 
the  basis  of  (1)  the  aim  of  the  instruction;  (2)  an  examination  of  courses 
of  study  as  adapted  to  the  preparation  for  the  composite  vocation  or  for  a 
specialized  vocation;  (3)  the  material  and  methods  of  instruction  employed; 
and  (4)  the  relation  of  the  instruction  to  later  employment." 

10  "  Survey  of  the  Needs  in  the  Field  of  Vocational  Home  Economics  Education,"  p.  10. 
Bulletin  No.  37,  Home  Economics  Series,  No.  4. 

^1  "  Home  Economics — Organization  and  Administration,  p.  16,  Bulletin  No.  28,  Home 
Economics  Series,  No.  2. 


20  TEADE  AND  INDUSTEIAL  EDUCATION 

The  purpose  of  trade  or  industrial  education  is  fourfold:  (1)  to 
prepare  the  girl  for  advantageous  entrance  into  the  field  of  wage- 
earning;  (2)  to  equip  the  girl  for  progression  or  advancement  in  the 
type  of  work  in  which  she  is  already  eng.iged;  (3)  to  enable  the  girl 
or  woman  already  employed  to  improve  her  civic  and  vocational  in- 
telligence; and  (4)  to  enable  the  employed  girl  or  woman  to  change 
to  a  more  congenial  or  profitable  occupation.  To  the  employer  this 
means  an  improved  product,  increased  output,  better  morale,  and 
decreased  labor  turnover ;  to  the  worker  it  means  real  cooperation  in 
industry,  which  results  in  higher  wages  and  a  better  standard  of  liv- 
ing ;  and  to  the  community,  in  consequence  of  these  things,  it  means 
a  better  citizenry.  The  training  is  intensive  for  one  specialized 
occupation,  or  for  groups  of  related  occupations,  and  is  such  as  will 
equip  the  workers  for  placement  and  steady  employment. 

The  vocational  teaching  must  be  done  by  persons  having  skill 
and  experience  in  the  trade,  who  keep  abreast  of  the  latest  and  best 
trade  practices.  Eelated  subjects,  a  knowledge  of  which  adds  to  the 
sldll  and  adaptability  of  the  worker,  m.ust  be  taught  as  tliey  function 
in  these  trades.  Non vocational  subjects,  for  general  interest  and  in- 
formation and  social  development,  supplement  and  balance  the  pro- 
gram. The  educational  value  of  an  experience  to  the  worker  must  be 
the  ultimate  test  of  its  admission  to  the  curriculum.  A  follow-up  of 
the  worker  should  check  the  value  of  the  instruction.  Each  school 
department  or  class  must  be  classified  according  to  the  aim  of  the 
group  enrolled.  The  content  of  the  course  and  the  method  of  pre- 
sentation will  necessarily  vary  according  to  tbe  vocational  and  educa- 
tional experience  of  the  group. 

IV.  Vocational  Education  tor  Girls  and  Women  a  two-folo 

Problem. 

The  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  woman  wage  earner,  as  well 
as  of  the  homemaker;  indicate  the  two-fold  nature  of  the  problem  of 
vocational  education  as  it  concerns  girls  and  women.  These  groups 
are  not  mutually  exclusive,  either  in  personnel,  or  in  interests.  In 
order  that  each  indi^'idual  may  be  assured  the  opportunity  of  doing 
the  liigliest  type  of  productive  service  in  both  capacities,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  training  for  both.  The  Department  of  Vocational 
Home  Economics  ha.s  set  for  itself  the  task  of  reaching  the  following 
social  groups :  Older  groups  of  girls  and  women  out  of  school,  younger 
groups  of  girls  who  are  at  work,  groups  of  girls  in  school,  and  groups 
of  foreign  girls  and  women.^- 

"  See  Eulletin  No.  37,  Home  Economics  Series,  No.  4,  entitled  "  Survey  of  the  Needs 
in  the  Field  of  Vocational  Home  Economics  Education,"  p.  17. 


J 


FOR  GIRLS  xVlSTD  WOME^ST.  21 

Trade  and  industrial  education  must  recognize  three  possible 
groups  defined  with  respect  to  the  wage-earning  experiences  of  girls 
and  women:  (1)  Those  who  work  only  prior  to  marriage;  (2)  those 
who  whether  married  or  not  continue  in  employment  indefinitely^; 
and  (3)  tliose  who  after  marriage  enter  on  or  return  to  wage 
earning. 

An  analysis  of  the  problems  which  confront  the  girl  or  woman  who 
enters  the  field  of  wage-earning  occupations  may  be  briefly  stated  as 
follows : 

1.  To  possess  a  marketable  asset  dependent  upon  natural  ability  and 
training. 

2.  To  secure  employment,  which  requires  some  knowledge  of  the 
labor  market  and  its  conditioning  factors. 

3.  To  adjust  herself  to  standardized  conditions  of  work  based  on 
interresponsibility  of  employer  and  employee. 

4.  To  produce  a  standard  output  in  quantity  and  quality  on  the 
basis  of  which  her  wage  is  determined. 

5.  To  cooperate  with  groups  charged  with  like  tasks  to  conserve 
the  interests  of  the  worker,  the  integrity  of  worlananship,  and  the 
morale  of  the  force. 

6.  To  achieve  economic  independence  under  conditions  which  will 
insure  mainteance  of  a  suitable  standard  of  living,  self-support,  and 
provision  for  dependents.^^ 

7.  To  overcome  the  diflicultj'-  caused  by  the  assumption  that  women 
can  not  render  effective  service  in  supervisory  and  managerial  posi- 
tions. 

Preparation  for  a  productive  occupation  pursued  to  its  fullest 
wage-earning  possibilities  presupposes  deliberate  choice,  investment 
of  time  and  money,  and  assurance  of  placement. 

By  the  shortest  route  to  the  pay  envelope  now  scheduled  in  the 
public  schools,  the  commercial  courses,  increasingly  large  groups  of 
girls  are  giving  evidence  of  their  consideration  of  the  advantages 
of  training  as  a  means  of  present  self-support ;  as  a  means  of  obtain- 
ing further  educational  opportunities;  and  as  a  means  of  assuring 
themselves  of  economic  independence.^* 

The  girl  whose  personal  desires  can  no  longer  be  considered  family 
necessities,  and  who  is  thrown  upon  her  ovv'n  resources  to  supply 

"  See  "  Cost  of  Living  for  Working  Women :  A  Criticism  of  Current  Theories,"  by 
Dorothy  W.   Douglas.     Quaiteily  Journal   of   Economics,    February,    1920. 

"  In  the  report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1915,  F.  V.  Thompson,  superintendent 
.  of  Boston  Public  Schools,  writes  :  "  Commercial  pupils  constitute  at  least  one-fourth  of  all 
high  school  pupils,  ten  times  as  many  as  there  are  agricultural  students,  five  times  as 
many  as  there  are  students  of  domestic  arts,  and  nearly  twice  as  many  as  are  found  in 
all  our  higher  educational  institutions,  and  these  figures  do  not  include  perhaps  one 
hundred  thousand  who  were  not  tabulated  in  the  returns  to  the  Commission  of  Edu- 
cation." Quoted  in  The  Journal  Polit.  Econ.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  No.  2,  Feb.,  1920,  by  Mr. 
Thompson  in  an  article  on  the  "  Kelatiou  of  Collegiate  School  of  Business  to  Secondary 
School  System,"  p.  159. 


22  TRADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

them ;  the  girl  urged  by  the  indefinite  and  nondescript  demands  origi- 
nating in  her  association  with  youthful  companions  or  in  the  fancied 
social  position  of  her  family;  the  girl  whose  unpromising  school 
record  argues  limited  school  expectancy;  the  girl  bearing  the  burden 
of  financial  responsibility  for  self-maintenance  or  for  the  care  of 
dependents,  which  her  earnings  alone  can  meet— all  of  these  girls, 
with  or  without  guidance,  and  irrespective  of  their  qualifications, 
are  shunted  into  the  only  course  in  the  public  school  with  wage-earn- 
ing possibilities. 

An  enlightened  public  opinion  relative  to  industrial  employments 
ifor  girls  and  women  based  on  facts  is  necessary  to  reach  the  groups 
of  industrial  wage  earners  with  a  program  for  vocational  education 
adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  girl  who  is  preparing  for  employ- 
ment, or  who  is  already  employed,  and  of  the  adult  woman  wage 
earner. 

Educational  administrators,  employers,  employees,  and  prospec- 
tive workers  must  actively  engage  in  removing  the  cause  for  discrimi- 
nation against  industrial  employment  and  advancement  for  girls  and 
women.  They  must  strive  to  bring  about  a  realignment  of  attitudes 
toward  one  another,  and  must  learn  to  appreciate  fairly  the  social 
justification  of  making  industrial  emplojmient  yield  the  largest  pos- 
sible educational  and  economic  returns  to  the  worker.  Thej'^  must 
cooperate  in  determining  what  instruction  can  be  most  adA'antage- 
ously  offered ;  the  best  method  of  providing  it ;  and  the  service  which 
the  local  public  school  may  render  in  establishing  the  program. 

Y.  WoaiEN .  IN  Industry  an    Increasingly  Important   National 
Problem — Analysis  and  Forecast. 

For  girls  and  women  the  opportunities  for  education  and  train- 
ing leading  to  gainful  occupations  have  been  broadened  by  coedu- 
cation. Also  it  is  true  that  new  vocations  for  which  women  are  espe- 
cially fitted  have  multiplied  as  a  result  of  the  mechanical  and  manu- 
facturing development  of  the  last  few  decades.  It  is,  therefore,  not 
surprising  that  the  rush  of  women  into  wage-earning  employments 
year  by  year  has  been  as  noticeable  as  the  increase  in  demand  for 
women  workers  in  these  employments.  In  a  comparatively  brief 
period  the  industrial  employment  of  women  has  become  a  matter  of 
national  and  even  of  international  significance,  ^° 

Although  the  influence  of  the  war  upon  the  employment  of  women 
has  been  far  reaching,  it  was  not  in  itself  the  original  occasion  of 
tlie  entrance  of  women  into  industrial  work.  From  1880  to  1910 
the  number  of  women  in  the  whole  United  States  in  industrial  em- 
ployment increased  threefold.    For  the  last  generation  the  number 


•5  See    Report    of    First    International    Conference    of    Working    Women.     October    28, 
lOl'J-Xovembei-  9,  1910,  Washington,  D.  C. 


FOR   GIRLS   AND   WOMEN".  23 

of  women  in  manufacturinfi"  industries  has  increased  more  rapidly 
than  the  number  of  men,  hence  the  recent  influx  of  women  into 
wage-earing  pursuits  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  acceleration  of  a 
normal  develoi^ment  rather  than  an  innovation. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  facts  and  figures  relative  to  the  em- 
ployment of  women  are  outside  the  usual  range  of  observation  and 
experience  of  the  general  public.  Even  available  sources  of  such 
information  are  not  generally  known  to  people  engaged  in  the  teach- 
ing profession.  Traditional  and  personal  prejudices  against  the  em- 
ployment of  women  still  persist  in  the  minds  of  many  people.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  to  provide  information  to  wear  away  these 
prejudices,  to  enlist  the  attention  of  people  in  order  to  stimulate  their 
observation  and  thought  on  tli(y  subject,  and  to  awaken  them  to  a 
realization  of  the  conditions  prevailing  in  their  own  States  and  com- 
munities. This  sort  of  preliminary  work  must  be  done  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  development  of  vocational  education  for  women. 

Authentic  detailed  figures  relative  to  women  in  gainful  occupa- 
tions at  the  present  time  are  unfortunately  lacking.  Until  returns 
from  the  United  States  Census  of  1920  are  available,  the  statistics  of 
1910  and  for  previous  census  years  must  suffice  to  indicate  the  changes 
which  have  been  taking  place  in  recent  decades.  Of  females  10 
years  of  age  and  over  in  1880  not  more  than  14.7  per  cent  were 
engaged  in  gainful  occupations.  In  the  20  years,  1880  to  1900,  the 
proportion  increased  to  18.8  per  cent,  and  by  1910  it  had  jumped  to 
23.4  per  cent.  To-day  the  number  is  conservatively  estimated  at 
12,000,000.^« 

Of  the  8,075,772  women  reported  in  the  1910  census  as  being  gain- 
fully employed,  31.3  per  cent  were  listed  imder  domestic  and  personal 
service;  approximately  one-fourth,  or  22.4  per  cent,  w^ere  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits;  about  the  same  proportion,  22.5  per  cent,  in 
mechanical  and  manufacturing  industries;  14.6  per  cent  were  em- 
ployed in  trade  and  transportation,  or  commercial  work;  and  9.1. 
I)er  cent  were  engaged  in  professional  pursuits."  (See  diagram  on 
page  24.) 

More  recent  figures  concerning  the  employment  of  women  in  in- 
dustry are  those  of  the  National  Consumer's  League  (1918).  The 
following  figures  ^^  from  that  source  i"epresent  not  women  who  have 
been  newly  added  in  American  industries  but  women  already  mill 
trained  who  were  transferred  to  war  essential  employments.^^ 

w  Women's  Bureau.  Hearings  before  the  Joint  Committees  on  Labor,  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  66th  Cong.,  2(1  scss.,  on  S.  4002,  II.  K.  1134,  H.  R.  12679,  Mar.  4,  1920, 
p.  20.     Testimony  by  Mary  Van  Kleeck. 

"  United  States  Census,  1919,  Vol.  IV,  p.  57. 

's  These  estimates  were  based  in  part  on  Ivnown  numbers  employed  in  newly  established 
plants,  and  on  a  20  per  cent  increase  over  1910  Census  figures  for  long-established  metal 
trades  and  plants  holding  direct  or  subsidiary  war  orders. 

i»  Figures  given  are  as  quoted  in  "  War  Time  Problems  of  Ind<istrial  Women."  Indus- 
trial Campaign  Series  No.  2,  Tart  I,  p.  6. 


24 


TEADE  AISTD   IITDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


Total  vsomcn  m  icnr  and  other  essential  industries,  J,GJ7,000. 

In  ciinncrios  (over  half  of  force) 8^,000 

In  food,  drug,  spiee,  tobacco,  and  similar  factories V2Z),  000 

In  textiles 27n,  000 

In  clothing  factories  (with  150.000  men) 212,000 

In  hosiery  and  knit  goods  (with  50,000  men) 130,000 

In  shoe  factories — principally  aiassachiisetts,  Missouri,  and 

New  York  (with  208,000  men) : 95,000 


Engaged  in  manufacturing  general  equipment  (100,000  of  these  are 
making  bolts  and  riA-ets,  running  drill  presses  and  working  in 
nruchiue  shops  and  foundries,  and  100,000  are  iu  munitions  work) 


917, 000 


600,000 


1,  517,  000 

INDUSTRIAL     DISTRIP.UTION     OF     GAINFULLY     EMrLOYED     WOMEN     AND 
GIRLS,   10  YEARS  OF  AGE  AND  OVER,   1910   (U.   S.  CENSUS). 


ClassifieatioB 

Kumbtr 

Par  cent                                           1 
0           5          10         15         80         25         30          1 

All  occupatlOBS,  Total 

OcQsetie  end  pcrsOTial  cerriee... 
Uuwfaeturlng  snd  neehanteal .... 
Agricultural  purtuite 

8,075,772 

100.0 

2,530.846 

1,820,980 

1,807,501 

733,885 

693 ,224 

468,038 

105.595 

13,558 

1,094 

31.3 
22.5 
22.4 
9.1 
7.3 
5.8 
1.3 
0.1 
OA 

-   s 

1 

i'--^ 

■ 

3 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  Avonien  "vvorlvers  in  1910  is 
indicated  by  the  following  table  in  which  percentages  of  women  in 
age  groups  in  gainful  occupations  are  listed  under  btates  which  are 
representative  of  each  of  the  geographical  regions  of  the  country. 
They  present  neither  the  maximum  nor  minimum  percentage. 

Percentage  gainfulli/  emploijcd  in  1910  of  icomcn  in  specified  age  groups. 
[United  States  Census,  1910,  VoL  IV,  p.  73.] 


State. 

10-13 
years. 

14-1.5 
years. 

lG-20 
years. 

21-44 
years. 

45  and 
upward. 

United  States 

Percentage. 

8.0 

Percentage. 
19.  S 

Percentage. 
30.9 

Percentage. 
26.3 

Percentage. 
15  7 

Massachusetts 

.3 
1.3 

.5 

1..3 

28.4 

1.3 

.4 

23.5 
20.9 
13.0 
10.3 
41.8 
6.1 
6.6 

60.. 3 
43.  S 
42.7 
28.3 
46.0 
2.J.0 
31.2 

38.6 
23.1 
22.6 
19.8 
39.7 
22  2 
24^7 

18  1 

Pennsylvania 

12  6 

niinois 

11  3 

Missouri 

12  3 

Georgia 

29  3 

Colorado 

16  3 

California 

14  4 

I 


FOE  GIRLS  AXD   WOMEX. 


25 


26 


TRADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 


As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table,  the  highest  proportion  gain- 
fully emplo^^ed  is  from  the  age  period  10  to  20  j'ears,  during  which 
period  practically  two-fifths,  or  40  per  cent,  of  all  women  were  work- 
ing for  wages.  Approximately  this  proportion  would  probably  be 
found  to  apply  to  the  age  period  IG  to  24  years.  The  distribution  of 
gainfully  employed  women  and  girls  10  years  of  age  and  over  by 
States  in  1910  is  graphically  shown  for  the  countr}^  as  a  whole  by  the 
map  on  page  25. 

Women  of  all  ages  are  wage  earners,  as  will  appear  from  the  fol- 
lowing summary  statement  based  upon  census  returns  for  1910 : 


Women  and  girls:  1910. 

Age  period. 

Total 
number. 

Engaged  in  gainful  occupations. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Ratio. 

34,552,712 

8,075,772 

23.4 

lin   4 

10  to  13  years.. 

3,593,239 
1,770,S98 
4,632,821 
16,331,449 
8,224,305 

2Sfi,946 

350,140 

I, H47, cm 

4,302,969 

1,283,117 

8.0 
19.8 
39.9 
26.3 
15.7 

linl2 

lin  5 

16  to  20  years  .             

2  in  5 

lin  4 

lin  7 

Though  women  are  employed  in  a  wide  diversity  of  industries, 
yet  the  number  of  processes  and  operations  within  those  industries 
open  to  them  has  been  decidedly  limited.  This  is  true  although  the 
United  States  Census  (Vol.  IV.,  p.  53)  reports  women  workers  in 
105  out  of  116  principal  occupations,  and  a  more  complete  census 
tabulation  (Vol.  IV.,  p.  91)  shows  women  employed  in  1910  in  385 
out  of  428  occupations. 

The  following  list  of  industries  employing  women  at  manufactur- 
ing and  mechanical  pursuits  is  arranged  according  to  their  relative 
importance  in  consideration  of  numbers  of  women  workers  reported 
in  1910.     (See  also  diagram  on  page  27)  : 

1.  Dressmakers  and  seamstresses  (not  in  factory). 

2.  Textile  industries. 

o.  Sewers  and  sewing-machine  operators  (factory). 

4.  Milliners. 

5.  Ci.2;ar  and  tobacco  factories. 
G.  Shoe  factories. 

7.  Metal  industries. 
S.  Clothing  industries. 
9.  Food  industries. 

10.  Tailorcsscs. 

11.  Printing  and  publishing. 

12.  Forewomen  and  overseers  (manufacturing,  etc.) 

13.  Apprentices. 

14.  Compositors,  linotypist  and  typesetter. 

15.  Lumber  and  furniture  industries. 


FOR  GIKLS  AND  WOMEIT. 


27 


^    "::. 


•H  m       c 


's: 


28  TRADE   A2?D   INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

It  has  Leon  commonly  supposed  that  there  are  certain  types  of  em- 
ployments Avhich  may  be  termed  man-employing  occupations,  other 
types  of  employments  which  may  be  considered  women-employing 
occupations,  and  still  others  at  which  both  men  and  women  may  be 
employed.  AMiich  sex  shall  be  employed  at  the  different  operations 
seems  to  be  determined  by  the  whims  of  local  tradition  or  of  indi- 
vidual prejudice.  As  a  result  of  the  great  increase  in  numbers  of 
women  employed,  the  diversity  of  their  employment,  and  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  their  work,  more  general  intelligence  is  being  directed 
toward  the  selection  and  placement  of  women  workers  by  measuring 
their  qualifications  with  the  requirements  of  the  job.  The  per- 
centage of  women,  therefore,  in  many  industries  is  undergoing  rapid 
changes. 

The  cotton  industry  and  the  clothing  trades  belonged  historically  to  women, 
but  are  at  present  followed  by  men  also ;  the  shoe  industry,  historically  a  man's 
trade,  has  used  women's  labor  for  a  hundred  years ;  the  cigar  industry,  not  an 
historic  industry  at  all,  began  as  a  by-employment  for  farmers'  wives,  then  be- 
came a  trade  for  immigrant  men,  and  later  ranks  high  among  the  women-em- 
ploying industries.^'' 

As  a  point  of  interest,  it  may  be  noted  that  man's  share  in  textiles 
and  clothing,  which  are  Avomen's  industries,  at  present  about  equals 
woman's  share  in  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing,  which  is  a  man's  in- 
dustry. 

The  emplo3^ment  of  girls  and  women  is  conditioned  by  youth,  do- 
mestic relationsliips,  labor  market,  and  protective  legislation.  Be- 
cause of  youth,  inexperience,  and  ignorance  of  the  value  of  coopera- 
tion the  girl  worker  is  a  poor  bargainer.^^  In  these  facts  lies  the 
occasion  for  the  State  to  assume  a  protectorate  over  her  interests, 
requiring  a  minimum  of  educational  attainment,  setting  a  mini- 
mum age  of  entrance  to  employment,  protecting  her  from  the 
physical  and  moral  hazards  of  undesirable  occupations,  shotting  a 
wage  scale  for  her  labor,  etc.  Although  this  legislation  providing 
for  the  protection  of  health,  moral  character,  standards  of  living,  and 
family  responsibilities  is  primarily  designed  in  the  interest  of 
woman's  obligation  to  herself  and  to  society  as  a  citizen,  mother, 
defender,  and  producer,  yet  these  restrictions  often  work  a  hardship 
in  individual  cases  and,  under  poor  direction,  seem  oppressive.  They 
should  obviously  not  be  pressed  to  the  point  of  handicapping  the 
worker  herself  in  bargaining  for  employment  under  fair  conditions. 

A  casual  survey  of  the  advertisements  of  any  metropolitan  daily 
will  suffice  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  young  girl  wage  earner  enters 
a  market  in  which  the  competition  for  her  labor  is  sharp.    Many  em- 

=»  Kdith  Abbott.     Women  in  Industry,  p.   86. 

='  Ethol  M.  Smith,  Secretary  I-eslslative  Committee,  National  Women's  Trade  Union 
League,  Washington,  D.  C,  reports  a  membership  of  000,000  regular  and  allied  members. 


FOR  GIRLS  AXD  WOMEIT.  29 

ployers  specify  that  the  "  applicants  must  be  between  the  ages  of  17 
and  24;"  and.  add  sii€h  indu<3em€nts  as,  "no  training  necessary;" 
"  paid  while  learning ;"  "  advancement  guaranteed ;"  and  "  promotion 
assured."  That  the  psychology  of  environment  and  its  effect  upon 
the  girl  in  influencing  her  choice  of  employment  is  understood  can 
be  seen  from  the  extent  to  which  "  agreeable  surroundings,"  "  rest 
rooms,"  "  social  opportunities,"  "  food  at  cost,"  etc.,  arc  featured  in 
the  "  help  wanted  "  columns. 

The  fact  that  the  girl  is  supposed  to  remain  under  the  protection 
of  her  home  until  marriage,  and  if  emplo^'ed  after  marriage  must 
generally  confine  her  services  to  a  local  market,  tends  to  limit  her 
opportunities  for  employment  to  local  industries. 

Married  women  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  outside  the  home 
are  still  a  minority  of  all  married  women,  although  the  numbers  so 
employed  is  steadily  on  the  increase.--  The  war  and  its  consequent 
-  shortage  of  workers  salvaged  the  middle-aged  woman  worker,  re- 
turning her  from  casual  to  permanent  industrial  emploj'ment  after 
she  had  reared  her  children  to  a  state  of  self-dependence. 

Over  25  per  cent  of  our  working  women  in  1910  were  married; 
15.4  per  cent  were  widowed  or  divorced.  Unquestionably  a  large 
part  of  the  remaining  CO  per  cent  who  were  single  shared  family 
responsibilities.  The  number  of  married  women  contributing  to 
the  family  income  by  their  labor  is  increasing,  and  the  period  of  time 
which  women  spend  in  industry,  variously  estimated  from  three  to 
seven  years,-^  is  lengthening. 

Those  v.'ho  hold  the  belief  that  wage  earning  by  married  women 
is  not  an  American  problem  overlook  the  economic  forces  and  the 
desire  for  purposeful  activity  which  are  driving  married  women, 
as  well  as  young  girls,  to  gainful  emi:)loyment.-*  In  23  miscellane- 
ous factory  industries  scattered  through  17  States,  the  Federal  Bu- 
reau of  Labor  Statistics  found  in  1909  that  12.4  per  cent  of  the 
women  workers  were  married.  Of  the  women  over  20  years  of  age 
more  than  one-fifth,  22.G  per  cent,  were  married.  Of  American  white 
women  in  the  selected  industries  9.9  per  cent  were  married.  In  the 
four  largest  of  the  industries  covered  the  percentage  of  married 
■women  over  20  years  of  age  was  as  follows :  ^^ 

—  A  liistory  of  the  Family  as  a  Social  and  Educational  Institution.  Willystine  Good- 
•  «ell,  p.  519. 

28  Industrial  Experience  of  Boston  Trade  School  Girls,  p.  78.  Bulletin  of  the  V.  S. 
B^ureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  No.  21o.      (1917.) 

'*  Cost  of  Living  in  the  United  States,  p.  30.  Monthly  Labor  Eeriew,  Vol.  IX,  No.  6, 
December,  1919.  In  this  study  c,N:clusions  were  made  "  to  secure  families  dependent 
for  support  as  largely  as  possible  upon  the  earnings  of  the  husband."  The  investigation 
,«covered  92  cities  in  the  United  States  and  12,09G  families  of  live  members.  Of  tliis 
arumber  1,073  families  supplemented  income  thi'ough  earnings  of  the  wife;  2,252  families 
supplemented  income  through  earnings  of  children. 

-^Eeport  on  Condition  of  Women  and  Child  Wase-camers  in  the  U.  S.,  Vol.  XVIII. 
Misc.  Industries,  pp.  27-28.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics. 


30  TKADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

J 
Cotton  textile  industry:  Per  cent. 

New  England  group 38.  4 

-    Southern  group . 40.  7 

Men's  ready-made  clothing 28.  6 

Glass  industry 12.  6 

Silk  industry IG.  0 

Women  have  been  regarded  as  a  casually  employed  group,  a  labor 
reserve  upon  which  industry  could  depend  in  times  of  demand  for 
increased  production.  That  tlieir  presence  in  industry  is  regarded  as 
a  permanent  fact  of  sufficient  moment  for  Congress  to  continue  the 
service  of  the  Women's  Bureau  in  the  Department  of  Labor  is,  how- 
ever, attested  by  congressional  action  of  June  5,  1920.  This  bureau 
has,  during  the  limited  period  of  its  existence,  formulated  standards 
and  policies  to  promote  the  welfare  of  wage-earning  women,  improve 
their  Avorking  conditions,  increase  their  efficiency^  and  advance  their 
opportunities  for  profitable  employment.  To  this  end  they  are  mak- 
ing a  study  of  the  opportunities  for  vocational  training  for  wage- 
earning  employment  for  women.^** 

What  employments,  serviceable  to  the  community,  are  profitable 
to  woman,  in  that  they  are  suitable  to  her  well-being,  offer  adequate 
wage,  and  insure  progression,  is  a  serious  question  at  the  present  time 
in  industry  for  employers,  and  more  especially  for  women  themselves. 
Certain  determining  factors  are  undergoing  rapid  changes.  Immi- 
gration has  declined  in  recent  years,  cutting  off,  for  the  time  being, 
one  source  of  additional  workers ;  the  preponderance  of  feminine  and 
minor  immigrants  is  a  unique  development  in  the  history  of  our 
immigration ; "''  and  there  has  been  during  the  war  period  an  in- 
creasing exodus  to  the  war-ridden  countries  of  Europe  so  that  emi- 
gration has  exceeded  immigration.^^ 

The  cost  of  the  necessities  of  life  increased  75  per  cent  in  the  five 
years  from  July,  1914,  to  Jung,  1919,  and  has  increased  materially 
since  that  time.^'  Demands  for  increased  production  and  the  con- 
sequent expansion  of  employment  have  drawn  heavily  on  the  available 
supply  of  labor. 

20  Testimony  of  Mary  Anderson,  Chief  of  the  Women's  Bureau.  Hearing  before  the 
Joint  Committee  on  Lalior,  Sixty-sixth  Congress,  on  S.  4002,  II.  R.  1134,  II.  R.  12G79, 
p.  5.5. 

"  Advance  sheets,  Bureau  of  Immigration,  July  1  to  Dec.  31,  1019. 

2s  Between  November,  1918,  and  November,  1919,  214,000  emigrants  left  our  shores, 
and  201,000  immigrants  arrived.  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce,  quoted  Literary  Digest 
Apr.  24,  1920,  p.  12. 

^  Monthly  Labor  Review,  October,  1919,  pp.  1-8.  A  comparison  of  the  results  of  the 
cost-of-living  surveys  made  by  the  National  Industrial  Conference  Board  with  those  of 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  indicates  that  while  the  former  show  an 
advance  of  72  per  cent  in  the  cost  of  living  between  July,  1914,  and  July,  1919,  the  latter 
show  an  advance  of  75  per  cent  between  July,  1914,  and  June,  1919.  Thus  the  only 
two  country-wide  studies  of  this  most  important  subject,  although  made  by  methods 
dissimilar  In  many  respects,  show  results  in  substantial  accord.  Taking  account  of  recent 
price  advances  it  is  perhaps  fair  to  say  that  the  cost  of  living  has  doubled  since  1913. 


FOE  GIELS  AND  WOME^-.  31 

In  no  phase  of  life  will  all  this  economic  stress  be  reflected  more 
quickly  than  in  the  daily  work  of  men  and  women.  The  continua- 
ance  of  employment  of  women  in  increasing  proportion  will  depend 
-  upon  immigration,  labor  shortage,  industrial  expansion,  economic 
need,  and  women's  desire  to  engage  in  productive  work.  We  are  in 
an  era  of  transition.  Industrially  we  can  not  think  in  terms  even  of 
a  comparatively  recent  past,  since  we  are  confronted  with  a  radically 
changed  arid  a  rapidly  changing  order  of  affairs. 

The  multiple  subdivision  of  industrial  processes,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  sj)ecialized  machines  adapted  to  women's  powers  and  abili- 
ties, have  swept  away"  the  traditions  of  apprenticeship  and  impaired 
appreciation  of  the  importance  of  training. 

Occupations  within  these  industries  are  highly  specialized,  and  the 
departments  frequently  so  organized  that  each  operation  is  of  equal 
importance  to  every  other  operation.  Under  these  conditions  there 
may  be  little  opportunity  for  advancement  in  gradations  of  skill,  and 
little  incentive  for  transfer  from  one  stage  of  employment  to  another. 
Sufficient  exj^jerimentation  has  been  made,  however,  in  training  work- 
ers for  entrance  into  industries,  as  well  as  for  progression  from  the 
intermediate  or  lower  stages  to  the  higher  stages  of  employment,  to 
prove  the  advantages  of  intensive  short  courses. 

Prior  to  the  war  it  had  been  assumed  that  training  for  occupation 
of  this  type  was  unnecessary.  It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  the 
lack  of  vocational  training  works  as  an  immeasurable  hardship  for 
the  young  wage  earner  by  holding  her  productive  efficiency  below  the 
requirements  for  earning  a  normal  standard  of  wage.  Garment-mak- 
ing industries,  textile  industries,  knitting  industries,  metal-trades 
industries,  together  with  public-service  groups,  such  as  the  telephone 
and  telegraph  corporations,  are  maintaining  successful  schools  of 
this  kind  at  the  present  time  in  different  localities  throughout  the 
country.  This  training  may  be  supplemented  by  related  instruction 
(1)  to  give  an  intelligent  background  of  technical  knowledge;  (2) 
to  familiarize  the  worker  with  the  details  of  plant  organization;  (3) 
to  increase  her  civic  consciousness  and  industrial  intelligence. 

If  this  instruction  is  to  be  Federally  aided,  it  must  be  given  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  Federal  vocational  education  act, 
and  the  provisions  of  the  State  plans  approved  under  that  act.  In 
Part  II  an  account  is  given  of  the  ways  and  means  of  realizing  a 
program  of  vocational  education  for  women  and  girls. 

Any  national  educational  program  for  girls  and  women,  adequate 
to  the  demands  and  opportunities  of  the  future,  must  include  better 
general  education  on  the  one  hand,  and  better  vocational  education 
on  the  other.  Essential  elementary  knowledge,  training,  and  disci- 
pline, "universal,  common,  and  compulsory,"  affords  direct  and  in- 


I 


32  TRADE  AND  Il^DUSTRIAL  EDUCATI02T 

valuable  preliminary  training  for  both  occupational  efficiency  and 
civic  responsibility-^" 

It  is  imiwrtant  that  some  measure  of  instruction  for  vocational 
efficiency  be  assured  prior  to  entrance  into  wage  earning.  The  length 
of  the  course  and  the  nature  of  the  instruction  should  be  determined 
with  reference  to  the  age  and  educational  experience  necessary  for 
profitable  entrance  to  the  occupation.  The  election  of  a  course  should 
depend  upon  the  personal  qualifications  of  the  worker  and  the  de- 
mands of  the  work.  Fourteen  years  is  commonly  acknoAvledged  to  be 
the  minimum  age  at  which  any  such  instruction  can  be  advantageously 
given. 

AYhile  for  thorough  trade  and  industrial  education,  some  direct 
initial  training  may  be  given  in-  the  day  school,  yet  it  is  commonly 
believed  that  much  of  this  training  can  only  be  given  parallel  to  the 
pursuit  of  the  occupation.  Provision  may  be  made  for  this  kind  of 
instruction  during  the  regular  hours  of  the  working  day  when  the 
worker  voluntarily  or  involuntarily  attends  part-time  classes.  "  This 
work  should  be  chiefly  adapted  to  the  two  ends  to  be  attained:  It 
should  be  civic  and  vocational,  not  narrowl}^  but  characteristically."  ^^ 

As  an  adjunct  to  strictly  vocational  education  for  giris  and  women,  it  is 
fundamentally  essential  that  tliey  be  given  an  understanding  of  the  conditions 
attendant  upon  wage  earning,  of  the  dignity  of  labor,  of  its  contribution  to 
society,  of  the  possibilities  for  protection  of  health,  morals,  and  earning  capacity, 
and  of  the  possibilities  of  advancement. 

It  should  be  the  primary  aim  of  preemplosTuent  vocational  training  in  those 
trades  where  mechanical  appliances  have  supplanted  hand  labor  to  fit  the  worker 
to  perform  effectively  some  specialized  work  and  to  make  it  clear  that  this  is 
but  one  stage  from  which  she  should  pass  with  additional  training,  when  in- 
creased maturity  and  experience  justify  advancement. 

It  should  be  the  primary  aim  of  subsequent  or  upgrading  vocational  education 
to  iit  the  worker  for  promotion  to  more  advanced  stages  or  for  leadership. 

It  should  be  an  especially  important  aim  of  vocational  education  at  later 
stages  to  fit  Avomen,  who  expect  to  remain  in  wage-earning  work,  for  productive 
and  directive  work  in  fields  which  demand  maturity,  experience,  and  special 
training  that  they  will  not  be  brought  into  sharp  competition  with  every  young 
woman  worker,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  special  training  of  the  latter." 

Industry  will  be  benefited  through  training  by  the  improived 
product,  increased  output,  better  service  rendered,  and  a  stabilized 
working  force. 

The  Avorker  will  be  benefited  by  the  better  wage,  improvement  in 
the  standards  of  living,  and  fuller  participation  in  civic  affairs. 

Society  will  benefit  automatically  by  the  recognition  of  the  service 
rendered  by  the  woman  wage  earner  or  the  woman  home  maker,  and 

»>  Frank  E.  Spaulding :  Educating  the  Nation.  (In  Atlantic  Monthly,  April,  1020, 
p.  .^20.) 

-1  Frank  E.  Spaulding  :  Educating  the  Nation.     Atlantic  Monthly,  April,  1920. 

^  Report  of  Committee  of  Women  in  Trade  and  Industrial  Education  for  Girls  and 
Women.     National  Society  for  Vocational  Education,  February,  1920. 


roR  GIRLS  a:sd  womeist.  33 

l)y  the  recognition  of  lier  riglit  to  participate  in  educational  programs 
as  they  relate  to  her  labor. 

The  Federal  vocational  education  act  recognized  the  need  for  t\vo 
types  of  vocational  education,  for  girls  and  women,  liomc  making  and 
wage  earning.  In  both  cases,  it  provides  for  the  recognition  of  part- 
time  classes  to  increase  both  civic  and  vocational  eiK(.'iency:  evening 
classes  for  instruction  related  to  the  day  emi)h)yment;  and  day  classes 
for  preparation  for  advantageous  entrance  to  tlie  ()ccui)ation. 

The  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  recognizes  that  classes 
in  trade  or  technical  subjects  for  girls  and  women  are  to  be  approved 
upon  the  same  basis  as  in  the  case  of  similar  classes  established  for 
men  under  the  provisions  of  the  Federal  act. 
10787°— 20 3 

/ 


PART  II. 

WAYS  AND   MEANS   OF   ESTABLISHING   AND   OPERATING   A   PRO- 
GRAM OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN. 

I.  Fundamental  PiuNCirLES  of  Federal  Aid. 

Federal  grants  for  the  purpose  of  developing  and  promoting  edu- 
cational enterprises  are  recognized  as  being  governmental  devices  of 
increasingly  practical  importance.^  Tliey  aim  to  stimulate  the  under- 
taking of  new  enterprises  by  encouraging  the  kind  of  expenditures 
most  desirable  in  the  interests  of  the  country  as  a  whole.  They  aim 
to  equalize  the  burden  of  the  cost  which  is  increased  for  some  com- 
munities by  a  relative  insufficiency  of  means  available  for  supi^orting 
the  cost.  They  aim  to  secure  uniformity,  efficiencj^,  and  economy  of 
administration.  They  aim  to  make  available  to  all  the  experience, 
knoAvledge,  and  breadth  of  view  which  a  central  executive  department 
can  not  fail  to  acquire. 

The  Federal  vocational  education  act  of  1917  (Public  Xo.  347,  Girth 
Cong.)  represents  an  application  of  the  foregoing  principles  to  a 
national  vocational  education  program.  It  proAddes  out  of  the  Na- 
tional Treasuiy  funds  made  available  for  cooperation  with  the  States 
in  promoting  a  kind  of  education  that  is  now  a  recognized  national 
need. 

II.  Organization  for  Administration  to  Secure  the  Benefits  of 

Api'rofriations. 

Responsibility  for  the  administration  of  these  funds  in  any  State 
is  discharged  through  two  cooperating  agencies :  The  Federal  Board 
for  Vocational  Education,  representing  the  National  Government, 
and  the  State  lioard  for  vocational  education,  created  or  designated 
by  the  State  legislature.  The  terms  of  the  agreement  between  the 
two  representative  agencies  are  embodied  in  a  State  plan. 

The  Feckn-al  Board  for  Vocational  Education  consists  of  seven 
members — the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  Secretary  of  Commerce, 
the  Secretary  of  Lalior,  and  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  ex  officio,  and  three  citizens  of  the  United  States  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  one  of  whom  shall  be  a  representative  of 
the  manufacturing  and  commercial  interests,  one  a  representative  of 
the  agricultural  interests,  and  ojie  a  representative  of  labor. 

1  Siduey  Webb  :  Grants  iu  Aid,  pp.  9-2G.     Lougmans  Green. 

35 


36  TRADE  AInTD  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATIOIT 

The  state  board  consists  of  not  legs  than  three  members,  and  has 
all  necessary  power  to  cooperate  Avith  the  Federal  Board  in  adminis- 
tration of  the  provisions  of  the  act. 

The  State  plan  sets  forth  the  details  of  administration  of  the  act 
within  the  State,  the  types  of  schools  or  classes  to  be  subsidized, 
-with  a  detailed  description  of  each  as  to  aim,  character,  and  content 
of  courses  of  study,  methods  of  instruction,  qualifications  of  teachers, 
and  provisions  for  training  teachers.-  The  Federal  Board  expects 
that  State  plans  will  be  prepared  with  reference  to  State  and  local 
needs,  and  will  be  subject  to  revision  whenever  changes  may  be 
necessary  or  expedient  for  purposeful  experiment.  For  this  reason 
the  State  must  make  its  own  application  of  certain  provisions  and 
standards  foimd  in  the  Federal  act.  These  provisions  guarantee  the 
autonomy  of  the  State  in  the  management  of  its  ow^n  educational 
program.  When  State  plans  are  approved  by  the  Federal  Board, 
they  become  working  agreements  in  terms  of  which  Federal  reim- 
bursements to  States  are  made.  Local  public  boards  in  turn  make 
proposals  of  plans  and  applications  for  aid  to  State  boards,  direct 
and  supervise  local  instruction,  and  report  on  existing  classes  to  State 
boards. 

III.  Funds  Available  tor  Distkibutiox.^ 

The  Federal  annual  appropriations  for  support  of  State  programs 
of  vocational  education  are  allotted  from  three  distinct  funds.  For 
agricultural  education  the  fund  is  allotted  to  States  on  the  basis  of 
their  rural  populations;  for  trade,  industrial,  and  home  economics 
education,  on  the  basis  of  the  urban  populations;  and  for  teacher 
training,  on  the  basis  of  total  populations. 

Within  the  States,  severally,  the  funds  are  to  be  used  by  State 
boards  in  accordance  with  the  following  conditions: 

(1)  Section  11  of  the  act  provides  that  one-third  of  the  appropria- 
tion for  trade  and  industrial  education  must,  if  expended,  be  applied 
to  part-time  schools  or  classes  for  workers  over  14  years  of  age  who 
have  entered  employment. 

(2)  It  is  further  provided  in  sections  3  and  11  that  a  portion  of 
the  trade,  home  economics,  and  industrial  fund,  not  exceeding  20 
per  cent,  may  be  expended  for  salaries  of  teachers  of  home  economics. 

(3)  Legal  requirements  imposed  by  the  act  stipulate  that  for  each 
dollar  of  Federal  money  expended  in  developing  the  program  for 
vocational  education,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  act,  the  State 
or  local  community,  or  both,  shall  expend  an  equal  amount  (sec.  11). 

=  Outline  for  Plans  of  States,  p.  107  Trade  and  Industi-ial  Education — Organizatioa 
and  Administration.    Bulletin  No.  17,  Trade  and  Industrial  Series,  No.  1. 

3  Kor  amount  of  these  funds  annually  available  see  Statement  of  Tolicies,  Table  1,  p.  G2. 
Federal  Board  Bulletin  No.  1. 


FOE,  GIllLS   AND   WOMEIsT.  37 

(4)  Not  more  than  GO  per  cent  nor  less  than  20  per  cent  of  the  ap- 
propriation for  this  training  of  teachers  for  any  A'ear  shall  be  ex- 
Dended  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  and  the  maintenance  of 
teacher-training  courses  in  any  one  line  of  vocational  work  (sec.  12). 

(5)  The  State  boards  have  been  authorized  by  a  ruling  of  the 
Federal  board  to  use  teacher-training  funds  for  the  maintenance  of 
teacher  training  and  supervision  on  condition  that  they  set  up  an 
approved  plan  of  supervision  and  (qualifications  of  supervisors  in 
accordance  with  which  such  supervisors  shall  be  employed,  and  that 
not  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  maximum  of  the  teacher-training 
fund  in  any  one  line  be  used  for  maintenance  of  supervision  in  that 
work.  This  is  with  the  understanding  that  a  large  part  of  super- 
visory work  is  a  training  of  teachers  in  service  or  itinerant  teacher 
training.  It  should  tlierefore  be  shown  in  the  plan  for  supervision 
that  such  teacher-training  work  is  included  as  a  part  of  the  State 
supervision  scheme,  and  that  the  persons  engaged  in  this  work  shall 
meet  the  qualifications  necessary  for  this  phase  of  supervision.  (Vo- 
cational Summary,  Vol.  I,  No.  4,  p.  12.) 

IV.  General  Provisions  or  the  Vocational  Education  Act. 

It  may  be  well  to  emphasize  here  that  the  Federal  funds  are  ap- 
propriated for  the  specific  purpose  of  providing  vocational  educa- 
tion for  persons  who  have  already  chosen  or  have  entered  upon  a 
particular  employment  in  order  to  prepare  them  for  more  efficient 
service  in  the  occupations  of  agriculture,  home  economics,  and  trade 
"and  industiy.  It  is  assumed,  moreover,  that  the  States  are  already 
making  ample  i^rovision  for  the  general  education  of  their  youth, 
and  that  the  local  school  and  community  accepts  the  obligation  to 
set  up  adequate  means  to  help  the  pupil  and  the  parent  determine 
wisely  upon  the  specific  vocational  selection.  Tlie  Federal  funds, 
therefore,  are  reserved  to  assist  in  providing  a  program  for  certain 
forms  of  vocational  education  not  adequately  provided  for  at  present 
in  our  system  of  public  education.  It  is  further  assumed  that  the 
public  schools  are  controlled  or  superA'ised  by  the  State  autliorities 
and  that  the  local  community  is  financially  obligated  according  to 
the  terms  of  the  State  plan,  and  is  charged  Avith  the  responsibility 
of  hiring  the  teachers,  recruiting  the  pupils,  conducting  the  scheduled 
sessions  of  the  school,  and  providing  suitable  equipment,  supplies, 
and  other  forms  of  maintenance.  The  general  provisions,  which  are 
common  to  the  three  forms  of  vocational  education,  are  an  integral 
part  of  every  State  plan  and  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  All  schools  or  classes  receiving  Federal  aid  must  be  under 
public  supervision  and  control. 

52499 


38  TKADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

2.  That  the  controlling  purpose  of  this  education  shall  be  to  fit 
for  useful  employment. 

3.  That  the  instruction  shall  be  of  less  than  college  grade. 

4.  That  it  shall  be  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  persons  over  14 
years  of  age  who  are  preparing  for  or  have  entered  upon  a  trade  or 
industrial  pursuit. 

5.  That  every  dollar  of  Federal  funds  must  be  matched  by  a 
dollar  of  State  or  local  funds,  or  both. 

G.  That  Federal  money  is  to  be  expended  only  for  reimbursement 
for  {a)  salaries  of  teachers  qualified  according  to  the  provisions  of 
the  State  plan,  and  for  {h)  expenditures  incurred  in  the  maintenance 
of  the  training  of  teachers  of  vocational  subjects. 

V.  Special  Provisions  for  Trade  and  Industrial  Education. 

There  are  certain  statutoiy  provisions  in  accordance  with  which 
schools  and  classes  in  trade  and  industrial  education  must  be  organ- 
ized in  order  to  receive  Federal  aid.*  These  provisions  define  cer- 
tain conditions  and  absolute  standards  to  be  incorporated  in  the 
State  plan;  they  leave  other  conditions  contingent  upon  the  State 
or  local  situation  to  the  discretion  and  interpretation  of  the  State, 
but  require  them  to  be  included  in  the  working  agreements  sub- 
mitted to  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  for  approval. 

ABSOLUTE   standards  INDICATED  IX  THE  ACT. 

The  three  types  of  schools  or  classes  are  defined  in  section  II  of 
the  act  in  terms  of  the  groups  of  pupils  to  be  reached  and  standards 
to  be  observed.  Girls  yet  in  attendance  at  school  may  receive  in- 
struction ^preparatory  to  entrance  upon  industrial  employment  in 
day  vocational  or  trade  schools.  At  least  half  the  time  of  such  in- 
struction must  be  devoted  to  practical  work  on  a  useful  and  pro- 
ductive basis  and  must  extend  over  9  months  per  year  and  not  less 
than  30  hours  per  week.  The  State  board,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Federal  Board,  may  modify  conditions  as  to  length  of  course  and 
hours  of  instruction  per  week  in  cities  of  less  than  25,000  population. 
Workers  over  14  years  of  age  (no  upper  age  limit),  who  have  entered 
upon  employment  may  be  given  classroom  instruction  of  a  grade 
designed  for  persons  from  14  to  18  years  of  age  for  not  less  than 
144  hours  per  year  in  any  subject  which  will  enlarge  their  civic  or 
vocational  intelligence.  This  instruction  must  be  given  during  the 
regular  hours  of  the  working  day  in  part-time  classes.  Workers 
over  16  years  of  age  may  receive  instruction  supplemental  to  their 
daily  employment  in  evening  classes. 

*  Bulletin  No.  17  :  Trade  and  Industrial  Series,  No.  1.  Trade  and  Industrial  Education — ? 
Drsanization  and  Administration,  pp.  23,  26. 


FOR  GIRLS  AND  W0ME2T.  39 

DISCKETIONARY  STANDARDS  INDICATED  IN  THE   STATE  TLAN. 

In  view  of  tlie  varying  industrial  development  in  the  several  States, 
and  the  diverse  tj^pes  of  trades  or  occupations  in  which  girls  and 
women  are  employed  and  for  which  instruction  may  be  given,  certain 
discretionary  standards  or  conditions  are  left  for  tlie  State  to  formu- 
late and  interpret  according  to  the  fundamental  purjjose  of  the  act, 
which  is  to  fit  persons  for  useful  employment.  These  stipulations 
relate  to  the  plant  and  equipment;  minimum  annual  maintenance; 
courses  of  study;  methods  of  instruction;  and  ({ualilications  of 
teachers;  and  must  be  indicated  in  th.e  State  plan. 

BUILDING  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Brieflj^  stated,  the  plant  and  equipment  must  be  adequate  for  in- 
structional purposes,  whether  it  be  shop  or  classroom,  whether  it  be 
in  a  separate  schoolhouse,  a  factory,  a  store,  a  public  building,  or 
other  location  determined  by  the  advantages  to  or  convenience  of  the 
students  enrolled. 

The  equipment  necessary  for  schools  or  classes  Avill  depend  upon 
the  trades  to  be  taught,  the  types  of  schools  or  classes,  the  groups 
that  are  to  receive  instruction,  the  character  of  the  course  of  study 
which  has  been  determined  upon,  and  the  methods  of  instruction 
adopted. 

Since  the  administrative  policies  of  the  Federal  Board  recommend 
that  the  State  board  shall  require  communities  to  state  the  aims  of 
each  all-day,  part-time,  and  evening  school  or  class,  it  Avill  be  possible 
for  the  State  board  to  determine,  for  individual  schools,  whether  the 
equi])ment  which  is  proposed  is  sufficient  in  quantity,  variety,  and 
model  to  insure  adequate  instruction  in  the  standard  practices  of  the 
trade  or  occupation  to  be  taught. 

The  State  laws  relative  to  accident  prevention  must  be  observed. 
Rules,  regulations,  and  cautions  should  be  posted ;  guards  and  other 
})rotectiA-e  devices  should  be  installed  in  compliance  with  provisions 
for  factory  inspection. 

Books,  apparatus,  cliarts.  blackboards,  and  desks  constitute  other 
items  of  general  equipment  to  be  considered  in  terms  of  the  usual 
standard  observed  by  the  State. 

No  portion  of  moneys  ap]:)ropriated  under  this  act  for  the  benefit 
of  States  may  be  applied  to  the  erection  or  repair  of  braidings,  the 
purchase  of  land,  or  other  items  prohibited  under  section  IT  of  the 
act. 

-MIMMUJC     FOR     JIATNTENANCE.  _ 

The  minimum  for  maintenance  of  da}^,  part-time,  or  evening 
schools  is  determined  by  variable  factors  Avhich  must  be  considered 


40  TRADE  AITD  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATIOIT 

by  each  State  in  attempting  to  fix  the  amounts  necessary  for  carry- 
ing out  its  program  and  fulfining  the  aims  of  each  type  of  school. 
The  size  of  the  community,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  efficient  teach- 
ers, particularly  of  vocational  subjects,  who  have  had  adequate  ex- 
perience in  the  wage-earning  phases  of  their  occupations  will  deter- 
mine the  cost  of  instruction.  The  salaries  of  shop  and  related  sub- 
ject teachers,  for  which  reimbursement  is  made  will  be  determined 
largely  by  the  basic  salaries  of  teachers  in  elementary  or  secondary 
schools  in  each  locality.  State  and  local  boards  should  realize  that 
through  the  use  of  Federal  funds,  the  burden  of  the  high  salary 
costs  necessary  to  secure  efficient  teachers  may  be  in  part  lifted  from 
the  local  community.  The  upkeep,  replacement,  and  care  of  ma- 
chinery and  tools,  together  with  the  cost  of  selecting,  buying,  and 
accounting  for  supplies,  are  items  of  maintenance  for  which  no 
reimbursement  from  Federal  funds  may  be  received. 

Even  though  the  shop  is  organized  on  a  productive  basis,  and  a 
salable  product  made,  yet  the  educative  value  and  aim  should  be 
l^aramount.^  It  should  be  evident,  therefore,  that  although  the 
product,  whether  made  for  the  school  or  other  public  institution, 
or  for  charitable  organizations,  or  for  sale,  ma}'^  diminish  the  gross 
maintenance  cost,  yet  it  can  not  make  a  school  self-supporting. 
These  facts  must  be  considered  in  formulating  State  plans. 

CIIAEACTER  AND   CONTENT  OF   COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

No  course  of  study  is  imposed  on  any  State  or  local  community. 
On  the  contrary,  the  spirit  and  letter  of  the  law  consistently  en- 
courage these  agencies  to  make  surA'ej^s  of  local  industries  and 
analyses  of  occupations,  in  order  to  determine  the  need  for  classes 
and  the  type  of  instruction  to  be  offered.  State  plans  should  be 
prepared  in  the  light  of  a  continuous  surve}',  and  should  set  forth 
the  general  conditions  in  accordance  with  which  courses  are  to  be 
organized. 

In  day  schools  for  girls  over  14  years  of  age  experience  has  de- 
termined the  following  apportioimient  of  tim^e  as  the  prevailing  prac- 
tice: (a)  At  least  one-lialf  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  practical  work 
on  a  useful  or  productive  basis,  (h)  from  30  to  35  per  cent  to  related 
studies,  and  (<?)  the  remainder  (15  to  20  per  cent)  to  nonvocational 
subjects. 

With  older  groups  of  women  confronted  with  the  immediate  i^rob- 
lem  of  w^age  earning  it  is  desirable  to  increase  the  proportion  of  voca- 
tional work  and  decrease  tlie  time  devoted  to  nonvocational  subjects. 
The  Federal  Board  must  require  adequate  provision  for  instruc- 

s  Principal  differentiating  characteristics  (])  of  tlie  commercial  shop  in  business,  (2) 
of  the  school  shop  conducted  on  a  useful  or  productive  basis.  Federal  Board  Bulletin  17, 
Trade  and  Industrial  Series,  No.  1.  Trade  aud  Industrial  Education — Organization 'and 
Administration,  p.   52. 


POR  GIELS  AND  WOMEN.  41, 

tion  in  related  subjects  to  accomplish  the  purpose  of  the  act,  which 
is  not  onl}^  to  improve  <rirls  as  workers  but  also  to  ^ive  them  an 
intelligent  understanding  of  the  technical  and  theoretical  aspects 
of  tlieir  work. 

The  character  and  content  of  instruction  in  part-time  classes  ad- 
mits of  instruction  in  any  subject  which  will  increase  the  civic  or 
vocational  intelligence  of  girls  over  14  years  of  age  who  have  ent^ered 
employment.  This  is  comparatively  a  new  field,  and  is  worthy  of 
study  and  experimentation.  Ultimately  the  needs  of  the  individual 
must  be  met,  but  organization  and  administration  will  necessitate 
the  handling  of  these  workers  in  groups.  Age,  grade,  attainment, 
occupation  in  which  engaged,  dominant  interests,  instruction  desired, 
and  occupation  chosen  are  a  few  of  the  factors  that  may  determine 
both  the  grouping  and  the  educational  program.  The  latitude  of  the 
law  is  intended  to  insure  the  greatest  possible  flexibility  in  character 
of  instruction  and  service  rendered- 

The  time  schedules  admit  of  a  great  variety  of  arrangements 
which  are  fully  discussed  in  Bulletin  No.  17,  Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  1.  Trade  and  Industrial  Education — Organization  and 
Administration,  page  75.  That  the  minimum  number  of  hours  is  only 
144  is  itself  indicative  of  the  necessity  for  making  the  character  and 
content  of  each  day's  instruction  purposeful  and  complete,  and  ar- 
ranged fof  definite  progression  in  a  series,  whether  it  be  for  general 
improvement,  special  vocational  training  for  entrance  to  an  occu- 
pation, or  for  promotion.  A  chart  of  differences  and  similarities 
in  the  three  types  of  part-time  schools  Avill  be  found  on  page  70  of 
the  above-mentioned  bulletin.  Part-time  instruction  is  the  great 
field  of  opportunity  for  employers,  school  authorities,  and  workers 
themselves,  to  initiate  educational  experiments  which  will  make  vo- 
cational education  a  dynamic  social  force  for  national,  civic,  social, 
and  industrial  improvement. 

Since  the  instruction  in  evening  schools  must  be  related  to  the 
day  employment  the  content  of  courses,  whether  shop  or  related 
subjects,  must  supplement  the  daily  occupation,  and  must  be  deter- 
■inined  bj-  the  actual  needs  of  the  group.  The  courses  must  be  de- 
signed for  people  with  a  common  background  of  concrete  experience, 
must  be  short,  intensi-\'e,  and  j)rogressive  in  arrangement.^ 

METHODS    or    INSTRUCTION. 

Effective  methods  of  instruction  in  day  vocational  schools  must 
prepare  for  placement  in  an  occupation  at  the  completion  of  the 
course.  The  length  of  the  course  measured  back  from  the  age  of 
effective  entrance  to  an  employment — whether  set  bj'  law  or  custom — 

» Evening  Industrial  Schools — Methods  of  Instruction,  p.  29.  Federal  Board  Bulletin 
No.  18,  Trade  and  Industrial  Series,  No.  2. 


42  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

should  (loteriiiine  the  minimum  age  for  enroHment  of  pupils,  Avhicli, 
in  turn,  modifies  the  methods  of  instruction. 

A  few  o;cneral  i)rinciples  characteristic  of  approved  methods  of 
instruction  are  cited  for  consideration  in  State  plans.  A  sequence 
of  concrete  experiences  should  be  arranged  in  progressive  instruc- 
tional order. 

Instruction  should  proceed  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  The 
task,  problem,  or  project  should  be  individual,  supplemented  with  some 
experience  in  group  planning  and  execution.  Exercise  and  practice 
-work  is  sometimes  necessary.  At  least  one-half  the  time  should  be 
devoted  to  practical  work  under  conditions  approximating  those  of 
the  trade  or  occupations,  and  the  economic  value  of  the  product  should 
be  comparable  Avith  that  produced  in  the  shop  or  factory.  A  knowl- 
edge of  commercial  shops  and  probationary  experience  should  be  re- 
quired to  supplement  the  trade  or  occupational  instruction. 

The  method  of  teaching  in  part-time  schools  will  differ  according 
to  the  wide  variety  and  types  of  the  individuals  enrolled.  It  will  also 
differ  according  to  the  aims  of  the  classes,  basis  of  grouping,  hours 
of  instruction,  and  other  variable  factors. 

General  continuation  schools  should  provide  a  "  receiving  station," 
where  general  improvement  classes  may  help  determine  the  most 
advantageous  assignment  of  the  individual  to  her  group.  Departure 
from  conventional  methods  of  teaching  is  necessary  to  appeal  to  the 
interest  and  initiative  of  the  girls,  and  often  necessitates  personal 
counsel  and  assistance.  Each  lesson  shoidd  be  a  unit ;  each  hour  yield 
the  largest  possible  return ;  and  the  instruction  function  toward  some 
worth}'  end.     This  is  a  fertile  field  for  educational  experiment. 

The  methods  of  teaching  trade  or  occupational  subjects  must  neces- 
sarily be  modified  by  the  shortness  of  time.  This  will  correspond- 
ingly develop  the  ability  of  the  worker  to  plan  for  herself  with  a 
minimum  of  direction  and  demonstration. 

The  methods  of  instruction  in  evening  classes  will  vary  according 
to  the  purpose  and  aim,  whether  it  be  for  supplementary  skill  in  the 
day's  task,  or  for  the  development  of  the  fundamental  principles 
involved.  The  short  unit  course  is  arranged  to  yield  a  maximum 
of  return  in  a  minimum  of  time.  Devices  for  making  this  effective 
are  discussed  in  Bulletin  No.  18.  Evening  Industrial  Schools,  pages 
29-32. 

QrALIFJCATIONS    OF   TKACHKKS    IX    AI.T.-DAY,    PAnT-TIMK,    AXI)    KVKXIXO    .SCHOOI-S. 

Two  types  of  teachers  in  day  trade  schools  are  recognized  by  the 
Federal  act.  Though  qualifications  may  differ  according  to  locality 
and  trade,  adequate  practical  experience  is  necessary  for  both  shop 
and  related  subjects  teachers.  In  trade  schools  for  girls  the  best 
results  have  been  achieved  in  shop  work  by  having  the  teaching  staff 


roil  GIBLS  AiS'D  WOISIEiT.  43 

composed  partly  of  trained  teachers  with  trade  contact  for  the  ele- 
mentary division,  and  for  the  more  advanced  divisions  the  expert 
trade  worker  trained  in  the  teacliing  processes. 

While  related  subjects  must  be  strictly  vocational  and  inherent 
in  the  trades,  the}'  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  may  be  tauj^ht  in 
an  ordinary  classroom,  laboratory,  or  studio.  Technical  prepara- 
tion with  commercial  experience  is  almost  essential  for  successful 
instruction  in  subjects  recjuiring  a  Iviiowledge  of  drawing,  design, 
and  ait. 

Since  the  local  communities  are  required  to  bear  the  salary  ex- 
pense of  the  nonvocational  teacher,  tho  board  does  not  require  the 
State  to  specify  standards  for  such  teachers.  It  would  approve 
standards,  however,  only  in  case  the  minimum  requirements  speci- 
fied for  State  licenses  were  observed.  Successful  teachers  of  grade 
or  high  school  experience  should  be  secured  whenever  possible. 

In  State  plans  for  part-time  schools,  also,  two  general  types  of 
teachers  are  recognized,  and  their  qualifications  defined:  Teachers 
of  subjects  to  enlarge  the  civic  intelligence,  and  teachers  of  subjects 
to  enlarge  the  vocational  intelligence. 

Teachers  of  subjects  designed  to  enlarge  the  civic  intelligence 
should  be  chosen  because  of  interest,  insight,  and  peculiar  personal 
fitness  for  dealing  with  this  group  of  working  girls  to  whom  a  new 
educational  service  is  extended.  Professional  training  equivalent 
to  that  required  in  other  regular  elementary  schools  is  required.  In 
all  probability  these  socially  minded  teachers  can  be  recruited  from 
the  regular  staff  of  the  schools.  As  the  upper  age  limit  of  compul- 
sory part-time  attendance  and  the  number  of  hours  of  instruction 
differ  in  the  States  in  which  these  programs  are  being  inaugurated, 
there  will  probably  be  two  types  of  vocational  shop  teachers  to  be 
recognized  in  State  plans.  The  teacher  who  will  deal  with  the 
j^ounger  group  in  "  trade-finding ""  activities  must  be  chosen  because 
of  her  personality,  interest,  occupational  experience,  and  under- 
standing of  the  wage-earning  girl.  While  a  high  school  education 
is  desirable,  natural  qualifications,  leadership,  versatility,  common 
sense,  and  judgment,  which  come  from  varied  experiences  in  life, 
may  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  schooling.  The  teacher  who  deals  with 
the  trade  work  must  have  the  same  qualifications  as  a  teacher  in  the 
day  trade  school. 

In  all  probability  the  teacher  who  qualifies  for  the  day  trade  work 
will  be  eligible  for  evening  school  instruction  both  in  shop  and  related 
subjects.  It  will  be  necessary,  however,  at  times  to  bring  in  teachers 
who  possess  a  very  thorough  knowledge  of  a  particular  thing  to  be 
l^resented  to  a  particular  group.  The  State  plans  should  so  clearly 
indicate  the  different  possibilities  that  the  local  community  may  have 
a  basis  of  judgment  for  selection.    State  plans  should  provide  also 


44  TRADE  AND   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

that  before  a  teacher  enters  upon  evening  school  employment  the 
approval  of  the  State  board  be  secured,  and  a  full  statement  of  the 
qualifications  of  the  i)rospective  teacher  be  submitted  with  the  appli- 
cation for  ai)proval.  The  greatest  latitude  should  be  given  local 
communities  in  rocniiting  desirable  teachers  Avho  have  had  much 
practical  experience  or  technical  training. 

TEACHER    TRAINING. 

When  any  State  undertakes  the  responsibility  for  a  program  of 
trade  and  industrial  edu.cation  it  likewise  assumes  the  duty  of  train- 
ing teachers  for  the  schools  or  classes  established  and  of  supervising 
their  work. 

The  State  plan  should  set  forth  the  provisions  to  be  followed  in  the 
execution  of  the  scheme  of  training.  The  details  to  be  considered  in 
training  teachers  for  shop  subjects,  related  subjects,  and  general 
continuation  school  work  are  briefly  indicated  below. 

The  sho^)  teacher  in  the  day  school  usually  relinquishes  the  com- 
mercial pursuit  of  her  trade  or  occupation  and  regards  teaching  as 
her  steady  employment.  In  part-time  schools  this  may  or  may  not 
be  necessary ;  in  evening  schools  the  instructor  regards  the  teaching 
as  incidental  to  the  day's  employment.  It  is  desirable  that  lier  train- 
ing for  teaching  follow  her  trade  experiences  or  be  given  at  the  same 
time  she  is  employed  at  her  work,  and  continue  periodicalh'^  as  a 
means  of  improvement  in  service. 

Few  successful  workers  can  be  induced  to  leave  their  occupations 
and  devote  their  entire  time  to  this  preparation,  hence  the  training 
of  teachers  for  shop  subjects,  for  both  day  and  evening  classes,  be- 
comes an  evening  school  problem  to  be  carried  out  in  centers  where 
desirable  candidates  from  the  trades  or  occupations  may  be  recruited. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  women  in  this  group  have  at  least  a  common- 
school  education;  have  already  mastered  the  trade  content;  have 
acquired  trade  skill;  and  have  sufficient  maturity  to  master  the 
fundamental  principles  of  teaching  in  a  limited  number  of  hours  of 
professional  training. 

The  State  may  specify  the  maximum  or  minimum  amount  of  time 
to  carry  out  its  program.  At  present  this  is  Aariously  approximated 
at  from  50  to  240  hours.  A  program  may  be  arranged  in  a  two-year 
course  of  evening  instruction,  in  two-hour  periods  twice  a  week,  or 
for  extension  or  summer  courses.  These  courses  may  be  given  at 
centers  of  training  established  by  State  boards  or  by  the  institutions 
to  which  they  have  delegated  the  responsibility.  The  course  may 
include  a  flexible  arrangement  of  material  similar  to  tlie  following, 
which  has  been  set  up  as  a  course  of  minimum  essentials,  to  be  sup- 
plemented by  observation  and  practice  teaching : 


FOK   GIRLS  A2s'D  WOMEN".  45 

1.  An  analj^sis  and  classification  of  what  is  to  be  taught — The 
trade  or  occupation. 

2.  The  teaching  process — Methods. 

3.  Lesson  phinning  and  teaching. 

4.  Principles  of  laying  out  courses  of  study  and  program  making. 

5.  Class  organization  and  management. 
G.  Factory  training. 

7.  General  principles  of  vocational  education. 

8.  Kinds  of  vocational  schools  and  classes. 

9.  General  information — legal  regulations.  (Occupational  stand- 
ards set  by  State,  factory  inspection,  health,  safety,  accidents,  etc.) 

It  is  desirable  that  the  shop  teacher  return  periodically  to  the  trade 
to  keep  abreast  of  the  latest  practices.  Only  as  many  teachers  should 
be  trained  as  may  be  reasonably  sure  of  placement;  the  number 
should  be  regulated  by  a  careful  selection  of  candidates  chosen  "svith 
the  assistance  of  a  committee  representing  the  trade  Avhich  the 
applicant  desires  to  teach. 

Graduation  requirements  should  be  the  same  as  the  State  standard 
for  vocational  certification.  Provisional  certificates  may  be  issued 
pending  completion  of  the  course. 

It  is  generally  recognized  in  State  plans  that  a  wide  technical 
knowledge  is  desirable  for  the  teachers  of  related  subjects,  and  ac- 
cordingly States  have  provided  a  program  of  professional  training 
to  supplement  the  technical  courses  in  institutions  delegated  to  train 
teachers.  The  proportion  of  subjects  is  distributed  about  as  follows : 
Fifty  per  cent  to  technical  and  related  subjects,  35  per  cent  to  aca- 
demic, and  15  per  cent  to  professional  subjects.  A  limited  choice  is 
permitted  from  the  following  courses : 

1.  Theorj'^,  principles,  and  problems  of  vocational  education. 

2.  History  of  industrial  education. 

3.  Methods  of  teaching. 

4.  Organization  and  administration  of  vocational  education. 
(Federal  Board  Circular  Letter  393.) 

5.  Surveys  for  purposes  of  industrial  education. 

6.  Vocational  psychology  and  counseling. 

Since  a  knowledge  of  related  subjects  is  inherent  in  the  trades,  it 
is  highly  desirable  that  the  teacher  should  have  actual  experience  at 
wage  earning  under  industrial  conditions. 

States  which  have  passed  part-time  compulsory  attendance  laws 
(see  map,  p.  4)  are  confronted  with  the  jjroblem  of  training  teachers 
for  the  work  prior  to  the  inauguration  of  the  program.  Most  States 
are  selecting  experienced  teachers  from  the  regular  teaching  staff 
because  of  their  personal  aptitude  and  social  mindedness.  Since  the 
success  of  this  educational  experiment  depends  largely  on  the  teaciier, 
the  number  of  students  subject  to  the  laws  will  necessitate  a  large 


46  TKADE   AND   IXDUSTEIAL   EDUCATION 

bod}'  of  teachers  avIio  must  be  given  some  idea  of  the  purposes,  organi- 
zation and  administration,  methods  of  instruction,  and  types  of 
service  Avhicli  may  be  rendered  to  the  group  of  working  girls.  The 
Avidcst  latitude  is  jicrmitted  the  general  character  of  the  work  to  be 
undertaken,  and  the  time  devoted  to  it  should  be  specified  in  the  State 
plan.  Tlie  person  who  is  charged  with  selection  of  candidates  to 
receive  training  and  responsibility  for  determining  the  content  of  the 
courses  must  have  not  only  a  practical  professional  education  biit  also 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  an  industrial  occupation  and  industrial 
conditions. 

SrPEEVISIOX.  • 

Realizi)ig  the  need  for  delegating  the  authority  and  fixing  the  re- 
sponsibility for  supervision  of  trade  and  industrial  education,  a 
ruling  of  the  board  (July  11.  1918)^  recognized  the  advantages  of 
supervision  as  a  means  of  improvement  of  teachers  in  service.  Ac- 
cordingly, 15  per  cent  of  the  total  teacher-training  funds  for  any 
v^tate  may  be  used  for  supervision  of  trade  and  industrial  instruction, 
])rovided  the  State  sets  up  the  qualifications  of  its  supervisors  and 
its  plan  for  supervision. 

The  groAvth  of  this  work  will  require  t])e  State  boards  for  voca- 
tional education  to  encourage  the  investigation  of  the  needs  of  girls 
and  women  Avorkers  in  more  than  an  incidental  and  casual  manner. 
The  lack  of  information  about  industrial  education  on  the  part  of  the 
public  and  the  apathy  or  indifference  toAvard  industrial  employment 
of  women  indicate  that  much  preliminary  work  must  be  done  to  edu- 
cate the  public,  establish  an  understanding  Avith  school  adminis- 
trators, and  receive  the  cooperation  of  employers  and  employees. 

"When  a  Avoman  has  been  appointed  to  do  this  Avork  for  the  State 
board  her  duties  haA-e  included  the  folloAving  actiA^ties: 

Cooperating  Avith  local  communities  in  making  preliminary  sur- 
A'eys  and  iuA'cstigations  for  determining  the  need  for  inaugurating  a 
program  for  trade  and  industrial  education. 

Outlining  courses  of  study  and  organizing  teaching  material;  as- 
sisting teachers  in  improving  Avork  b}^  personal  conferences  and 
sectional  meetings. 

Preparing  suitable  puldieity  material  and  bulletins  explaining  the 
purpose  and  scope  of  the  AVork  as  a  means  of  educating  the  public. 

Giving  personal  supervision  to  all  schools  maintaining  trade  and 
industrial  courses. 

Inspecting  schools  or  classes  applying  for  Federal  and  State  aid  ac- 
cording to  the  State  plans,  and  reporting  to  the  State  board  for 
ajjproval  or  disapproval. 

'  Use  of  teacher-training  funds.     The  A'ocational   Summary,   A'ol.   I,   No.   4,  p.    12. 


rOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN.  47 

Supervising  teacher-training  courses. 

Preparing  reports  for  the  State  board. 

Engaging  in  such  other  activities  rehitive  to  trade  or  industrial 
education  as  the  State  board  may  direct. 

It  is  possible  for  a  State  in  which  the  industrial  development  is 
limited  to  employ  one  person  for  teacher-training  and  supervision. 
The  qualifications  desirable  for  this  work  are  the  same  as  for  men 
holding  the  same  position ;  two  years  of  collegiate  training,  two  years 
technical  training,  and  professional  training  with  teaching  experience 
and  sufficient  contact  to  be  familiar  with  industrial  processes  and  con- 
ditions affecting  industrial  education, 

SUGGESTED   STEPS   IN   THE   DEVEl.OPMENT   OF   A   PKOGRAM   OF   VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION. 

In  the  light  of  the  foregoing  anal3'^sis  of  the  provisions  of  the 
Federal  vocational  act  a  brief  summary  suggestive  of  the  procedure 
is  submitted  by  which  a  local  community  may  determine  the  kind  of 
instruction  needed  and  organize  its  Avork  to  secure  the  best  results 
possible.  It  must  be  reiterated  tliat  the  act  was  intended  to  prepare 
persons  for  gainful  employment,  and  that  all  its  provisions  apply 
equally  to  a  program  for  girls  or  boys  and  men  or  women,  without  dis- 
crimination. 

There  must  be  positive  support  of  the  program  for  vocational  edu- 
cation by  the  local  school  superintendent  and  the  assistant  to  whom 
he  has  delegated  the  work.  It  is  desirable  to  secure  the  assistance 
and  approval  of  such  local  organizations  as  the  chamber  of  com- 
merce (industrial  division),  labor  organizations,  educational  com- 
mittees of  the  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association,  employment  bureaus,  manufacturers'  associations, 
and  the  like.  An  advisorj^  council  composed  of  representatives  of  these 
organizations,  chosen  by  the  organizations  themselves,  employers,  em- 
•ployees,  and  business  women  actively  interested  in  education,  should 
represent  the  various  interests  concerned  in  the  program. 

The  industrial  survey  of  the  community,  together  with  its  educa- 
tional opportunities,  should  be  permanent  and  continuous,  and  the 
facts  and  figures  should  be  made  available  through  all  possible 
channels  of  publicity.  The  local  department  of  vocational  educa- 
tion should  assist  in  the  analysis  of  dominant  occupations  or  indus- 
tries and  should  summon  to  its  assistance  such  advice  and  help  as 
can  be  secured  from  the  State  staff  on  problems  of  industrial  educa- 
tion, Avhether  it  be  concerning  classes  under  public  control  or  training 
conducted  as  a  private  enterprise  in  an  industrial  plant.  Sugges- 
tions on  making  an  industrial  survey  may  be  found  in  The  Vocational 
Summary,  Volume  II,  No.  8,  page  130;  No.  9,  page  IHO;  and  in 
Federal  Board  C.  L.  1G8. 


48  tradp:  and  industrial  education 

Vocational  classes  do  not  recruit  themselves.  Aggressive  publicity 
in  the  press,  pulpit,  street  cars,  and  shop  windows  is  a  legitimate 
means  of  advertising.  Personal  work  among  groups  of  people  who 
ma}'  be  enrolled  sometimes  secures  satisfactoiy  results,  particularly 
for  niffht-school  classes. 

The  choice  of  a  desirable  teacher  and  the  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  subject  matter  which  is  to  be  taught  may  call  for  the 
assistance  of  the  supervisor  and  teacher-training  department. 

Records  should  indicate  enrollment,  attendance,  and  completion 
of  course.  Each  State  board  provides  blank  forms  for  requests  for 
reimbursement  and  assures  itself,  through  its  State  supervisor,  that 
tlie  work  has  been  done  in  accordance  with  its  agreement  with  the 
local  community. 

Federal  funds  may  be  used  by  the  State  board  only  as  reimburse- 
ment for  salaries  of  teachers  under  conditions  set  forth  in  the  State 
plans. 

It  must  be  recognized  by  all  who  are  familiar  with  the  field  of 
vocational  education  that  there  must  be  an  immense  amount  of 
educational  propaganda  before  the  organization  of  classes  for  girls 
and  women  can  be  effected  on  an  adequate  scale.  Xo  scheme  of  edu- 
cation can  be  successful  without  tlie  Avhole-hearted  support  of  the 
school  administrators  and  the  general  public.  Securing  this  sujv 
port  is  the  first  step  in  the  development  of  vocational  education  for 
women. 

VI.  Types  of  Vocational  Schools  and  Training  Agencies. 

Any  program  for  vocational  education  for  girls  and  women  pre- 
supposes an  analysis  of  the  needs  of  the  group  of  present  and 
prospective  wage  earners.  It  is  evident  that  these  groups  in  dif- 
ferent communities  vary  in  age,  schooling  experience,  and  opportu- 
nities for  employment.  It  is  consequently  evident  that  attention 
Avill  be  directed  toward  diiferent  types  of  vocational  schools  or 
classes  according  to  the  paramount  interests  of  the  communities 
and  the  dominant  needs  as  influenced  b}^  the  age  and  development 
of  its  workers.  The  sequence  of  the  historical  development  of  the 
different  types  of  scliools  or  classes  does  not  necessarily  indi- 
cate the  order  of  progression  of  an  effective  program  in  any  com- 
munity. It  simply  indicates  that  public  attention  was  centered  upon 
the  needs  of  a  S])ecial  group  and  a  program  evolved  to  meet  the 
emergency.  The  fact  that  various  commendable  enteri:)rises  are  not 
subject  to  Federal  reimbursement  does  not  signify  disapproval  of 
tliem  or  underestimation  of  their  service.  The  Federal  Board  as  a 
public  agency  created  to  stimulate  and  promote  vocational  education 
is  interested  in  all  public  and  private  agencies  for  vocational  educa- 
tion as  well  as  in  schemes  for  training  workers  in  plants. 


I 


FOR   GIRLS   AND   WOMEN.  49 

t     The  use  of  FeJeral  funds  is  necessarily  limited  bv  the  terms  of 
the  act  and  the  administrative  policies  defined  under  the  act. 

The  history  of  industrial  education  for  Avage-earning  <rirls  and 
women  in  the  United  States  dates  back  less  than  a  (juarter  of  a 
century.  The  efforts  of  the  women  who  have  pursued  the  first 
educational  experiments  in  industrial  centers  were  directed  toward 
preemployment  training  in  the  day  school,  which  would  lift  the 
young  wage  earner  over  the  unprogressive  stages  of  work  and  secure 
for  her  advantageous  entrance  into  better  types  of  employment. 
Though  generally  initiated  by  private  philanthropy,  these  enter- 
prises after  having  passed  the  experimental  stage  liave  become  a 
part  of  the  regular  public-school  system  in  the  communities  in  which 
established. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  evening-school  pupils  join  a  class  with  a  prac- 
tical end  in  view;  that  employers  and  workers  themselves  need  in- 
formation relative  to  the  values  of  supplementary  instruction  with 
definite  vocational  bearing;  that  much  study  and  careful  experiment 
is  necessary  to  work  out  an  educational  program,  which  will  be  sup- 
plementary in  practice  or  in  principle  to  the  day's  employment. 

The  evening  school  for  industrial  workers  in  many  localities  at 
present  suffers  from  a  confusion  of  purposes  and  a  popular  impres- 
sion that  evening  classes  for  women  workers  should  partake  of  the 
nature  of  social  center  activities,  while  the  fundamental  purpose,  i.  e., 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  worker,  demanding  instruction  with 
direct  and  immediate  values  applied  at  the  point  of  greatest  need,  is 
overlooked. 

By  far  the  largest  single  group  to  be  reached  by  Federal  aid  for 
vocational  education  is  the  young  wage  earner  over  14  years  of  age. 
To  encourage  service  to  tliis  important  group  the  act  provides  that 
one-third  of  the  industrial  fund  allotted  to  any  State,  if  spent  at  all, 
must  be  spent  in  providing  part-time  scliooling  for  this  group.  The 
rulings  of  the  board  admit  of  a  flexible  program  recognizing  that  the 
girl  who  is  under  the  authority  of  the  public  school,  and  is  open  to  its 
influences  of  encouragement  and  direction  as  well  as  of  instruction, 
is  insured  educational  progress.  Undoubtedly  this  is  a  perfectly 
obvious  i^oint  for  beginning  a  program  in  the  19  States  which  have 
already  passed  compulsorj'  part-time  school  attendance  laws.  The 
success  of  this  enterprise  in  States  which  have  pushed  the  work,  even 
on  a  voluntary  basis,  indicates  popular  recognition  of  the  national 
importance  of  this  movement. 

Some  consideration  of  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  foregoing  types,  together  with  ilkistrations,  may  be  suggestive 
to  different  communities  of  possible  fields  of  development. 
10787°— 20 i 


50  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL.  EDUCATIOIT 

EVENING  SCHOOLS  AND  CLASSES. 

Evening-school  classes,  as  they  have  developed  for  working  Avomen 
and  girls,  serve  four  important  fimctions,  the  first  three  of  which 
are  a  part  of  a  general  education  program : 

1.  To  provide  opportunity  for  social  and  recreational  activities 
such  as  games,  folk  dancing,  debating  clubs,  dramatics,  supper  clubs, 
sewing  clubs,  and  the  like. 

2.  To  provide  training  in  various  activities  of  home  making  for 
personal  or  family  use. 

3.  To  provide  a  general  educational  program  which  will  enable  the 
worker  to  overcome  the  deficiencies  of  early  education  and  complete 
a  definite  goal  such  as  the  elementary  or  high  school  course. 

4.  To  provide  vocational  education  for  wage  earners  which  pre- 
pares for  entrance  to  occupation,  or  for  progression  or  advancement 
in  an  occupation. 

The  Federal  vocational  education  act  limits  the  use  of  Federal 
funds  in  evening  schools  to  trade-extension  classes  for  advancement 
or  progression  in  an  occupation. 

The  first  of  these  enumerated  fimctions  is  necessary  and  desirable — 
a  public  responsibility  for  those  numerous  groups  of  industrial  work- 
ers who  seek  diversion  from  continuous  employment  at  monotonous 
routine  tasks.  The  second  enables  the  woman  to  obtain  instruction 
desirable  for  personal  or  home  use.  The  third  enables  the  girl  or 
woman  to  mend  the  limitations  of  separation  from  educational  oppor- 
tunities and  influences  resulting  from  an  early  entrance  upon  a  wage- 
earning  pursuit.  The  fourth  or  vocational  function  serves  the  largest 
group  by  commercial  courses  Avhich,  after  a  quarter  of  a  century  of 
pioneering  by  private  schools,  have  come  to  be  almost  the  dominant 
type  of  evening-school  instruction  for  girls,  because  it  provides  a 
direct  approach  to  a  gainful  occupation.  Technical  courses  for 
women  have  not  yet  developed  extensively. 

The  tradition  that  evening  technical  courses  are  not  open  to  women, 
or  that  specially  diluted  technical  courses  for  them  and  excluding 
men  are  necessary,  must  be  replaced  by  new  ideals  and  standards 
based  upon  the  successes  of  carefully  selected  women  students  for 
existing  technical  courses  and  for  new  courses  devised  to  meet  the 
demands  of  occupations  and  the  needs  of  workers.  This  will  require 
painstaking  care  in  selection  of  pupils,  good  organization,  and  ade- 
quate instruction. 

Sufficient  initial  enterprises  have  been  inaugurated  to  indicate  the 
advantages  of  trade-extension  classes  for  workers  and  point  to  a 
way  to  further  development.  It  is  for  the  purpose  of  expanding  the 
opportunities  for  this  group  of  workers  over  16  years  of  age  that  Fed- 
eral funds  are  made  available  in  evening  classes  only  for  that  type 


FOR   GIRLS   AXD  WOME:sr.  51 

of  instruction  in  trade  and  technical  subjects  which  rehites  to  the 
day  emplo^^ment. 

In  this  evening  school  group  the  pupil  is  a  Avnge  worker,  mature 
and  wanting  definite  help.  What  knoAvledge  she  has  is  the  result  of 
concrete  experiences.  She  does  not  Avant  nor  will  she  utilize  abstract 
information. 

A  study  of  working  girls  in  evening  schools^  in  New  York  City 
in  1910-11  reveals  facts  having  significant  bearings  on  industrial 
education.  Nearly  50,000  Avomen,  chiefly  wage  earners,  Avere  enrolled. 
Through  no  other  public  agency  Avould  it  be  possible  to  reach  as  large 
a  group  of  Avage  earners.  The  total  register  of  Avomen  included 
in  the  iuA-estigation  Avas  89,242.  Personal  records,  secured  from 
13,141,  revealed  the  folloAving  facts  concerning  nationality,  age, 
motiA'CS,  present  occupations  and  preAdbus  schooling :  Sixty-eight  per 
cent  Avere  born  in  the  United  States;  32  per  cent  Avere  betAveen  16 
and  18  years  of  age;  only  23  per  cent  had  passed  their  21st  birth- 
day. That  they  had  joined  with  a  practical  end  in  view  Avas  evi- 
dent from  the  three  rival  aims  rcA^aled  in  "  motiA'es  for  attending," 
namely:  "In  order  to  change  to  better  Avork";  "to  learn  for  home 
use  '• ;  and  "  to  obtain  a  general  education."  A  comparatively  small 
group  desired  "help  in  daily  occupation."  To  quote  one  conclusion 
of  this  study : 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  of  all  problems  encountered  hy  teachers  in  eve- 
ning scliools  is  tlie  restless  and  undirected  seeliiug  after  some  kind  of  training 
that  will  enable  the  girl  wage  earner  to  find  a  better  job  tlian  the  one  slie  now 
has. 

In  general,  girls  whose  schooling  was  cut  short  entered  correspond- 
ingly loAv-paid  occupations.  Domestic  employees  had  the  least  school- 
ing ;  factory  workers  came  from  the  higher  grades  in  the  elementary 
school,  and  commercial  workers  Avere  largely  represented  in  high- 
school  training. 

The  number  of  industriallj'-  employed  girls  exceeded  slightly  the 
munber  commercially  employed,  but  represented  a  Avide  diversity  of 
jobs  for  Avhich  "  employer  "  and  Avorker  alike  see  little  scope  for  sup- 
plementary training  with  definite  A'ocational  bearing.  This  does  not 
mean  that  industrial  education  for  women  must  be  abandoned.  It 
does  mean  educational  propaganda  and  careful  experiment.  The 
greater  the  emphasis  placed  on  A'ocational  training  the  more  it  neces- 
sitates seeking  out  groups  of  workers  with  a  similarity  of  experience, 
discoA'ering  their  needs  and  desires,  organizing  classes  Avith  a  definite 
aim,  and  securing  a  teacher  Avho  can  giA'e  expert  instruction.  The 
aclA'ancement  of  the  worker  is  dependent  upon  her  practical  knowl- 
edge, not  upon  her  academic  training.    The  short-unit  course,  inten- 

*  Working  Girls  ia  Evening  Schools.  Mary  A'^aa  Kleeck.  Russell  Sage  FouiMiation, 
1914. 


52  TRADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

sive  in  character,  arranged  in  progressive  sequence,  economizes  time 
and  enables  the  worker  to  enter  at  her  point  of  greatest  need.  These 
needs  may  be  discovered  in  preliminary  registration.  Instruction 
may  be  offered  in  fundamental  principles  or  in  technique  of  the 
trade;  hence  aim,  day  occupation,  age,  experience,  and  ability  are 
factors  which  may  determine  a  homogeneous  group. 

Groups  following  the  custom-sewing  trades  may  comprise  those 
who  w^ork  at  home  for  private  customers,  the  house-to-house  seam- 
stress, those  who  ^vork  in  large  or  small  custom  shops,  those  who  work 
in  wholesale  dressmaking  factories  as  operatives,  apprentice  girls 
eager  to  learn,  helpers  who  are  absorbed  in  the  repetition  of  simple 
tasks  unable  to  get  any  training  for  advancement  within  the  shop, 
waist  finishers,  or  other  specialists.  Courses  most  desired  by  these 
workers  are  draping,  drafting,  cutting  and  fitting,  dress  designing, 
and  decorative  embroidery. 

It  is  essential  to  define  each  course  in  terms  of  its  aim.  A  course 
in  pattern  drafting  plans  to  teach  the  principles  of  line  and  measure- 
ment as  a  foundation  for  designing.  A  course  in  waist  draping  aims 
to  develop  facility  and  accuracy  in  modeling  a  waist  from  a  design 
shown  in  a  sketch.  The  following  outline  is  submitted  to  show  that 
the  unit  course  places  emphasis  not  on  practice,  which  the  girls  have 
already  had  in  the  shop,  but  on  fundamental  j^rinciples  which  are 
difficult  to  obtain  in  the  workroom : 

COURSE  IN  WAIST  DRAPING. 

(3  units,  30  lessons,  required  for  a  certificate.) 

1.  Study  of  fasliion  plates  and  discussion  of  lines  in  waists.  Demonstration 
and  criticism  of  several  models. 

2.  Preparing  of  lining,  padding  of  lining  on  figure. 

3-4.  Practice  draping  with  tissue  paper,  several  different  models. 
5-6.  Practice  draping   (one  model)   with  cambric  or  cheesecloth  in  two  dif- 
ferent colors. 

7-8.  Fitting  net  on  yoke  and  collar. 

9-19.  Draping  waist  in  cloth. 

20-30.  Draping  waist  in  silk,  chiffon,  and  lace. 

Similar  analyses  of  groups  of  workers  and  courses  of  instruction 
could  be  made  of  millinery;  of  power-machine  operating,  with  its 
diversity  of  sj)ecialized  machines  and  products,  including  curtains, 
fur,  millinery,  straw,  neckwear,  whitewear,  corsets,  machine  em- 
broidery, and  men's  and  women's  clothing,  and  of  textiles,  calcula- 
tions, design,  and  other  subjects,  Avhich  may  be  related  to  these 
specific  occupations. 

Courses  related  to  the  preparation  and  serving  of  foods  include 
lunchroom  or  counter  service,  pantry  service,  table  service,  tea-room 
or  cafeteria  management  and  marketing,  for  groups  already  in  the 
occupation.     Invalid  cookery  and  dietetics  may  be  regarded  as  trade- 


FOR  GIRLS   AKD   WOMEiq",  53 

extension  classes  for  nurses.     The  following  course  was  planned  for 
part-time  and  evening  courses  for  hotels  and  restaurant  service. 

COURSE  FOR  TABLE  OR  COUNTER  SERVICE.^ 

This  course  of  study  for  table  or  counter  service  has  been  arranged 
Avith  the  hope  that  it  may  be  suitable  for  use  in  any  kind  of  table  or 
counter  service.  Those  avIio  are  familiar  with  hotel  and  restaurant 
service  realize  how  widely  different  are  the  organizations  and  sys- 
tems in  individual  establishments.  In  consec^uence,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  adapt  this  outline  to  the  needs  of  each  separate  restaurant. 
Some  points  will  necessarily  call  for  amplification,  others  will  need 
to  be  omitted  entirel}^ 

Ot'TLINE  OF   INSTRUCTION. 

I.  Orstuiization  -of  restaurant   (2  Iiours)  : 

A.  I'ersoniiol — 

1  hour— 

1.  Kitchen — 

a.  Duties  of  chef,  cooks,  carvers,  servers,  pantryp.ien 
or  women,  and  wliatever  employees  there 
may  be. 

2.  Storeroom — 

a.  Duties  of  steward,  storeroom  attendants,  etc. 

3.  Dining  room — 

a.  Duties  of  liead  waiter  or  waitress,  captains, 
waitress,  bus  boys  or  girls,  checkers,  cashier, 
and  other  employees. 

B.  Equipment  and  supplies — 

1.  hour — 

1.  Location  of  linen,  silver,  glassware,  china,  condiments, 
sauces,  etc,   (oa  the  job). 

II.  Personal  address  (3  hours)  : 

A.  Appearance — 

"I  hour — 

1.  Uniform — 

a.  Practicality. 

b.  Value  to  the  girl,  to  the  hotel,  effect  upon  the 

guest. 

c.  Headwear. 

d.  Shoes. 

e.  Jewelry. 
1  hour — 

2.  Carriage. 

3.  Care  of  hair. 

4.  Care  of  skin  and  nails. 

5.  Care  of  teeth. 

B.  Approach  to  guest — • 

1  hour — 

1.  Courtesy. 

*  State  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Austin,  Tex.  Department  of  Industrial 
Education. 


54  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

III.  Service  (G  or  7  hours)  : 
1  hoxir — 

A.  Preliminaries— 

1.  Seating  of  guests. 

2.  Menu  card. 

B.  Taking  tlie  order — 

1.  Metliod,  written  or  oral — 

a.  Device.s  for  aiding  memory. 

2.  Guests'  preference  -in  serving  of  coffee,  salad,  etc. 
1  liour — 

C.  Setting  the  table — 

1.  Clianging  tlie  cloth. 

2.  Placing  of  napkin,  silver,  glasses,  etc. 

3.  Uses  of  utensils  (silver,  china,  etc.). 

4.  For  special  occasions. 
1  hour  to  3  hours — 

D.  Serving  the  order — 

1.  Use  and  preparation  of  tray. 

2.  Arrangement  of  salad,  coffee,  side  dishes,  etc, 

3.  Method  of  serving. 

a.  Demonstration  meals. 
1  hour — 

E.  Removal  of  dishes — 

1.  Method. 

2.  Disposal  of  touched  and  luitouchcd  foods. 

3.  Cleaning  table  or  counter. 
1  hour — 

F.  Efficiency — 

1.  Speed. 

2.  Quality. 

3.  Headwork. 
IV.  Miscellaneous: 

1  hour — 

A.  Meanings  of  menu  terms,  foreign  phrases,  etc. 

B.  Tips— 

1.  Attitude  toward. 

2.  Amounts  generally  given. 

3.  Tips  to  fellow  workers. 
C  Complaints  of  guests. 

D.  Special  courtesy  to  helpless  guests. 
V.  Washing  dishes  (with  demonstration),  1  hour: 

A.  Glassware. 

B.  Silver. 

C.  Chiim. 

VI.  Service  for  special  dinners  and  banquets  (with  demonstration),  1  hour. 
VII.  Carving  and  pantry  service  (with  demonstration),  1  hour; 

A.  Dining-room  carving. 

B.  Serving  of  meats. 

C.  Pantry  service. 
VIII.  Trade  ethics,  1  hour — 

A.  Relation  to  fellow  workers. 

B.  Relation  to  guests. 

C.  Relation  to  management. 

Note. — Extra  lessons  to  be  inserted  where  needed  as  a  result  of  observation  and  coordi- 
nation work  of  teachers  in  individual  establishments  where  classes  are  being  held. 


I 


rOE   GIRLS   AND  WOMEX.  55 

Large  numbers  of  women  are  employed  in  the  lioht  rnotal  trades, 
such  as  the  manufacture  of  automobile  parts,  locks,  computing  ma- 
chines, and  other  office  appliances.  For  women  engaged  at  the  bench, 
on  machines,  inspecting,  assembling  and  testing,  short  unit  courses  in 
evening  classes  may  be  offered  in  the  use  of  precision  measuring  in- 
struments, machine-shop  practice,  blue-print  reading,  and  drafting. 
One  industrial  community,  where  the  largest  group  of  employed 
Avomen  are  engaged  in  metal  trades,  developed  a  course  in  drafting 
for  women  employees  in  the  local  plants  from  specimen  plates  sub- 
mitted by  the  various  firms  as  an  index  of  the  type  of  work  desirable. 

The  woodworking  trades  employ  women  in  increasing  numbers  in 
furniture  making,  fine  finishing  of  victrolas,  pianos,  and  other  musical 
instruments.  Consequently  these  workers  would  be  eligible  to  trade 
extension  classes  offering  instruction  in  rod  making  and  reading, 
gluing  and  assembling  of  parts,  grains  of  wood,  the  use  of  fillers, 
stains,  varnishes,  and  finishing,  arranged  in  a  sequence  of  units  for 
evening  class  instruction. 

Definite  thought  and  investigation  directed  in  this  line  would  de- 
Aelop  opportunities  in  connection  with  other  employments,  such  as 
monotype  operating  and'  proof  reading  for  women  in  the  printing 
trades,  optics  for  instrument  makers,  armature  winding  for  electrical 
workers,  and  other  types  of  instruction  yet  to  be  developed. 

The  questions  involved  in  industrial  education  for  women  will  not 
be  answered  until  we  take  account  of  all  the  divers  trades  in  which 
women  are  employed.  In  1913  there  were  drawn  from  the  record 
cards  of  women  attending  public  evening  schools  in  New  York  City, 
289  subdivisions  of  the  main  occupational  groups,  and  further  sub- 
division was  found  necessary  to  count  the  number  of  distinct  tasks 
which  represented  the  day's  work  of  the  wage-earning  women.^° 

In  some  positions,  such  as  forewomen  and  instructors,  there  is  need 
for  imagination,  organizing  capacity,  general  intelligence,  and  a 
kno^vledge  of  human  factors  of  employment  as  well  as  a  knowledge 
of  materials,  tools,  and  processes.  Evening  classes  for  training  fore- 
women and  supervisors  are  recognized  by  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education  as  trade-extension  courses,  while  the  prepara- 
tion of  women  for  instructors  in  schools  or  plants  is  regarded  a 
legitimate  teacher-training  function. 

Diversity  of  experiment  is  desirable.  Those  responsible  for  the 
development  of  this  work  in  any  community  should  endeavor — ■ 

(1)  To  know  the  local  industrial  occupations  in  relation  to  their 
educational  possibilities. 

(2)  To  find  out  Avhat  occupations  are  represented  in  the  evening 
school  enrollment. 


10  Working    Girls    iu    Eveniug    Schools,  p.  138.       Mary    Van    Kleeck.       Russell    Sage 
Foundation. 


5G  TRADE  A2^D  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATI02T 

(3)  To  bring  workers  in  similar  employment  together  to  discover 
facts  concerning  their  work. 

(4)  To  study  their  educational  deficiencies  and  needs  as  recognized 
by  themselves  and  their  employers. 

(5)  To  determine  whether  supplementary  training  can  be  given 
in  technique  or  in  fundamental  principles. 

With  the  knowledge  gained  from  the  preceding  study  the  following 
procedure  is  suggested. 

(1)  Define  the  aim  of  the  course. 

(2)  Limit  the  registration  to  those  already  employed  in  the  occu- 
pation to  be  taught. 

(3)  Provide  adequate  equipment. 

(4)  Secure  a  teacher  who  can  give  expert  instruction. 

(5)  Enlist  the  support  of  an  advisory  committee  selected  from  the 
trades  taught. 

Publicity  campaigns  ^^  for  recruiting  students,  registration  de- 
posits or  returnable  enrollment  fees,  records  of  attendance,  follow-up, 
certification  of  units  completed,  cost  accounting  and  expense  are  ad- 
ministration problems  in  evening  schools. 

Solution  of  the  problem  of  industrial  education  requires  pupils 
"with  definiteness  of  aim  and  similarity  of  purpose,  and  a  teaclier  with 
knoAvledge  of  occupations,  ability  to  analyze  occupations  and  organize 
subject-matter  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  group,  and  ability  to  devise 
new  methods  for  new  conditions. 

While  the  aim  and  purpose  of  the  pupils  in  the  last  analysis  rest 
with  the  individuals  that  make  up  the  group,  the  school  is  a  respon- 
sible party  in  the  attainment  of  aims  to  be  reached  only  by  carefully 
selected  subject-matter,  well-arranged  courses  and  adequate  instruc- 
tion. 

THE  ALL-DAY  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOL  OR  DEPARTMENT. 

The  all-day  school  for  young  entrants  into  the  trade  serves  to  lift 
the  girl  over  the  unskilled  processes  which  catch  and  hold  the  young 
workers  and  to  enable  her  to  enter  industry  at  a  higher  initial  wage. 
When  once  established  in  the  occupation  her  advancement  will  de- 
pend upon  her  individual  capacity  to  profit  by  the  opportunities. 

For  the  girl  of  limited  school  expectancy,  who  can  forego  wage 
earning  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  time  in  order  to  prepare  for 
w^ork,  the  school  is  under  obligation  to  control  the  necessary  agencies 
whereby  it  can  set  the  learner  at  work  on  productive  projects  appro- 
priate to  her  chosen  occupation  and  to  her  stage  of  development.  For 
her  the  day  vocational  school  secures  the  domination  of  an  educational 
aim  during  this  period  of  preparation. 

"  The  Application  of  Commercial  Advertising  Methods  to  University  Extension,  by 
Mary  Burchard  Davis.     Bureau  of  Education,  Bui.  No.  51,  1919. 


FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN.  57 

The  place  of  the  day  school  in  the  program  of  vocational  education 
is  defended  on  the  following  grounds: 

It  stands  as  an  institution  Avithin  the  school  organization  affording 
public  recognition  of  the  educational  needs  of  wage-earning  girls.  It 
may  serve  for  an  administrative  center  for  the  development  of  part- 
time  and  evening  classes,  coordinating  all  possible  opportunities  for 
educational  service  relating  to  employment.  It  may  become  a  pioneer 
experimental  institution  by  opening  up  new  lines  of  employment,  by 
cooperating  with  industry  to  secure  upgrading  of  jobs,  by  analyzing 
the  jobs,  by  setting  up  lines  of  progress,  and  by  training  to  secure 
that  progression. 

The  limitations  of  the  day  vocational  school  likewise  are  evident. 

The  number  of  girls  prepared  for  entrance  to  w^age  earning  is 
negligible  in  meeting  the  demands  of  labor  in  communities  in  which 
the  school  is  established.  The  number  of  occupations  taught  within 
the  school  is  likewise  limited.  The  school  must  compete  with  the 
"  paid  vv'hile  learning  "  jobs,  which  appeal  to  the  girl  who  underesti- 
mates the  opportunity  for  training  and  thinks  in  terms  of  immediate 
rather  than  deferred  values.  The  expansion  of  service  is  dependent 
on  the  ability  to  establish  full  faith  and  credit  with  employers  and 
with  workers. 

The  organization  of  the  day  vocational  school  may  admit  of  two 
types :  ( 1 )  A  separate  school  coordinate  in  rank  wdth  other  secondary 
schools,  with  a  director  and  staff  of  its  own;  (2)  a  separate  depart- 
ment in  a  liigh  school  with  a  director,  course  of  study,  and  staff  of 
vocational  teachers,  teachers  of  related  and  academic  subjects  being 
responsible  to  tlie  director  of  the  regular  school.  Both  types  have 
advocates  and  opponents. 

It  is  urged  by  educators  who  are  striving  to  reorganize  and  read- 
just the  school  curriculum  and  make  "  industry  a  factor  in  teaching 
the  child"  that  a  separate  school  under  separate  supervision  is  the 
greatest  evil  now  threatening  the  democracy  of  education. 

The  fimdamental  objections  problematically  stated  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  scheme  divides  and  duplicates  administrative  machinery. 

2.  It  tends  to  paralyze  the  movement  for  democracy  in  education 
now  operating  for  the  improvement  of  existing  schools. 

3.  These  new  schools  aim  at  increased  efficiency  in  narrow  limits. 

4.  The  segregation  will  work  disastrously  for  the  true  interests  of 
pupils  who  attend  vocational  schools.  To  give  pupils  a  knowledge 
of  industry  or  any  particular  occupation  in  relation  to  science,  art, 
and  society  in  general  w^ould  duplicate  existing  schools;  hence  this 
scheme  is  uneconomical,  undemocratic,  and  unnecessary. 

This  controversy  can  not  fail  to  make  the  vocational  schools  a  most 
potent  and  corrective  factor  in  the  reorganization  of  secondarj^  schools 


58  TRADE   AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION" 

of  the  country,  in  the  revision  of  the  curricula  and  methods  of  teacli- 
iug.  and  in  statement  of  aims. 

The  vocational  classes  organized  as  a  department  in  a  high  school 
suffer  from  the  fundamental  unlikeness  of  tlie  aims  and  purposes  of 
general  education  to  those  of  vocational  education.  Under  such  or» 
ganization  the  chief  liindrances  to  success  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  It  is  difficult  to  maintain  shop  conditions  with  the  distracting 
extra-curriculum  activities  and  the  interruptions  which  occur  in  the 
regular  school  "work. 

2.  It  is  difficult  to  allow  for  the  large  degree  of  independence  and 
the  indefinite  flexibility  essential,  and  for  correlation  with  the  in- 
dustry. 

3.  It  is  difficult  to  maintain  the  methods,  hours,  and  atmosphere 
that  approximate  trade  conditions. 

4.  It  is  difficult  to  identify  the  school  with  the  processes,  stand- 
ards, and  requirements  of  the  occupation  for  which  training  is  being 
given  on  the  one  hand  and  with  the  organization  of  the  historic  school 
on  the  other. 

5.  It  is  difficult  to  get  academically  minded  teachers  with  a  sym- 
pathetic viewpoint  who  will  study  the  industrial  experiences  and 
projects  of  their  pupils  and  use  them  as  a  basis  of  concrete  approach 
to  the  specific  training  in  related  subjects. 

G.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  a  democratic  and  unified  spirit  in  organ- 
ization of  the  teaching  force  into  a  working  body. 

7.  It  is  difficult  to  maintain  the  public  recognition  of  the  integrity 
of  the  department  as  a  separate  entity  in  the  industrial  world,  since 
such  departments  tend  to  become  academic  in  spirit  and  formalized 
into  general  industrial  and  manual  arts  courses.  The  vocational  de- 
jDartment  in  the  high  school  is  apt  to  be  satisfied  to  use  a  vocational 
motive  with  a  cultural  aim. 

8.  With  the  exception  of  home  economics,  where  the  training  for 
occupations  related  to  the  home  is  a  necessary  product  of  any  voca- 
tional course,  industrial  training  for  wage  earning  will  best  be  pro- 
moted by  recognizing  it  as  a  new  and  distinct  type  or  education  super- 
added to  the  hitherto  existing  types. 

9.  The  secondary  school  can  not  afford  to  allow  to  persist  such  con- 
fusion of  purposes  as  hampers  the  public  and  students  in  distinguish- 
ing betAveen  those  courses  of  instruction  and  training  which  are  de- 
scribed as  "  liberal "  and  those  otliers  which  are  intended  to  lead 
toward  vocational  competency. 

Vocational  training  can  not  be  accomplished  once  and  for  all  for 
any  given  student,  but  the  worker  must  have  the  opportunity  to 
return  for  short  or  long  periods  for  systematic  training  with  the 


I 


FOR  GIIILS   AND   WOMEN.  59 

day  school  as  ca  center  for  administration.  This  may  be  done  by 
short  unit  courses  adapted  to  the  immediate  needs  of  the  worker  and 
to  the  time  at  her  disposal,  or  by  dull-season  classes  for  older  girls 
with  a  distinctly  professional  attitude  toward  w^ork,  or  by  evening 
classes  in  trade  extension  for  the  mature  w'orkers. 

There  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  extend  technical  training  by 
placing  the  girl  in  employment  at  definite  stages  of  progression  and 
pro  Abiding  instruction  during  the  dull  season  to  alternate  with  periods 
of  work.  In  this  way  trade-extension  classes  may  begin  by  the 
trade  school  or  department  conducting  its  own  continuation  classes 
for  the  younger  worker  employed  in  the  occupations  for  which  train- 
ing is  given  in  the  school.  For  the  mature  worker  the  service  may 
be  provided  in  evening  school  instruction. 

The  largest  problem  in  training  is  connected  with  the  trades  in 
which  highly  skilled  work  brings  the  highest  industrial  opportunity 
and  wage,  but  in  which  means  of  securing  experience  and  training 
Avithin  the  occupation  are  limited.  Such  trades  have  a  recognized 
place  in  the  all-day  school  curriculum.  Any  occupation  for  Avhich 
training  may  advantageously  be  offered  must  have  teachable  con- 
tent ;  must  not  be  highly  seasonal ;  must  offer  benefit  to  the  Avorker 
for  increase  of  skill;  and  must  be  potentially  able  to  absorb  the 
number  of  Avorkers  trained. 

Considerable  breadth  of  interpretation  should  be  giA'en  the  term 
"  trade  extension,"  in  order  that  the  girl  or  woman  may  progress  in 
employment. 

A  course  of  study  in  a  day  vocational  school  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  act  must  provide  for  a  balance  of  subjects  sufficient  to 
insure  a  well-rounded  course.  The  program  for  instruction  must 
under  the  act  require  a  minimum  of  30  hours  a  Aveek,  for  9  months  a 
year ;  and  it  must  provide  that  one-half  the  time  shall  be  spent  in  the 
shop  on  a  useful  and  productive  basis.  For  older  groups  of  Avomen 
confronted  by  the  necessity  for  immediate  Avage  earnings,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  increase  the  proportion  of  vocational  Avork  and  decrease  the 
time  devoted  to  non vocational  subjects. 

The  Federal  Board  must  require  provision  for  instruction  in  re- 
lated subjects  adequate  to  accomplish  the  purpose  of  the  act,  which 
is  not  only  to  improve  girls  as  workers  but  also  to  giA'e  them  an  in- 
telligent understanding  of  the  technical  and  theoretical  aspects  of 
their  AVork. 

Trade  or  industrial  subjects  taught  in  public  vocational  schools, 
departments,  or  classes  at  the  present  time  are  listed  as  f oIIoavs  : 


CO  TRADE   AXD   IXDUSTKIiVL   EDUCATIOH 

Artilk-ial  flower  and  feather  -work.  Lamp  shade  iiiakiug. 

reading.  Laundry  work. 

P>ookl)i ruling.  Manicuring  and  shamptxdng. 

Cafeteria  service.  Mechanical  drafting. 

Commercial  art  and  design.  Millinery. 

Dressmaking.  Pasting  and  leather  trades. 

Electric-power    machine    operating    on      Perforating. 

clothing,  embroidery,  and  straw.  I'rinting  and  monotype  keyboard 
Embroidering  designing.  operating. 

French  edge  making.  Tailoring. 

Glove  making.  Telegraphy. 

Junior  nursing.  Trade  design   (for  costume  sketching, 
Laboratory  assistants  f  chemical,  metal,         embroidering,  etc.). 

and  bacteriological). 

Related  suhjeets  are  worked  out  upon  the  fundamental  princijiles 
of  the  trades  or  occiipations  taiioht,  and  vary  somewhat  Avith  the 
different  courses.  Thus,  English,  which  is  an  academic  subject, 
might  become  a  related  subject  in  the  printing  trades  and  salesman- 
ship in  the  millinery  trade.  Trade  mathematics,  trade  science,  and 
trade  drawing  may  take  on  a  variety  of  forms.  In  the  traditional 
trades  of  dressmaking  and  millinery,  the  trade  or  workshop  mathe- 
matics arises  from  actual  problems  in  the  workroom,  and  includes 
measurements,  estimates,  costs,  business  transactions,  transfer  of 
money,  credit,  discounts,  budgets,  maintenance,  dei^reciation,  and 
the  like. 

A  study  of  textiles  of  value  to  workers  and  customers  is  based  on 
qualities,  prices,  Avidths,  uses,  weaves,  fibers,  shrinkage,  permanence 
of  color,  variations  in  standards,  adulterations,  and  tests — supple- 
mented with  such  general  information  relative  to  cleansing,  bleach- 
ing, dyeing,  printing,  designing,  sources  of  raw  material,  and  types 
of  finished  product  as  may  be  usable  in  trade  work. 
'  Drawing,  designing,  and  art  as  related  to  the  making  of  clothing 
and  hats  treat  of  line,  proportion,  rhythm  and  balance,  light  and 
shade,  color  combinations,  decorations,  suitability  to  the  wearer,  the 
use  of  different  fabrics,  and  means  of  securing  effective  results  in  cos- 
tume designing. 

Indusfi'kd  economics  is  a  term  applied  to  a  course  which  is  given 
to  acquaint  girls  preparing  for  workshops  and  factories  with  the  eco- 
nomic and  social  problems  attendant  upon  wage  earning.  It  com- 
prises— 

(1)  Laws  affecting  the  employment  of  girls  and  Vi'omen. 

(2)  Factory  inspection. 

(3)  Organizations  for  the  betterment  of  working  conditions. 

(4)  Facts  relating  to  specific  occupations  (e.  g.,  hazards,  prevent- 
able diseases). 

(5)  Standards  of  work,  wages,  hours  of  emplo^'ment. 


FOR   GIRLS  AND   WOMEN.  61 

(6)  Types  of  shop  or  factory  management  (e.  g.,  corporation, 
partnership). 

(7)  Empk)yment  tests. 

(8)  Simple  business  ethics  rehitive  to  ri<^hts  of  workers  and  their 
responsibilities. 

This  knowledge  is  fundamental  to  the  welfare  of  every  wage- 
earning  girl. 

Academic  or  nonvocational  subjects. — The  jiart  of  a  vocational 
program  which  is  provided  by  the  State  or  local  community  and  for 
which  Federal  money  is  not  available  includes  such  subjects  as  Eng- 
lish, civics,  inclustrial  history,  commercial  geography,  and  the  mini- 
mum essentials  of  homemaking.  Physical  training  and  hygiene 
are  of  prime  importance  to  the  young  worker,  as  physical  fitness  for 
a  trade  and  an  understanding  of  the  principles  of  physical  care  and 
protection  are  absolutely  essential  for  entrance  upon  industial  em- 
ployment. Wherever  possible  physical  deficiencies  should  be  reme- 
died or  corrected. 

One  important  service  of  the  day  trade  school  is  the  placement  and 
follow-up  of  its  students.  Since  the  test  of  the  training  is  iuimediate 
employment,  it  is  necessary  for  the  school  to  keep  in  close  touch  with 
the  opportunities  for  placement  and  requirements  upon  the  workers. 

The  following  schedules  comply  with  the  minimum  requirements 
set  up  by  the  terms  of  the  Federal  act  ( 1 )  and  present  some  types  of 
variations  in  time  distribution  possible  under  the  provisions  of  State 
plans  (2),  (3),  (4). 

(i)  Trade  school  for  (/iris. 

Minimum  age  of  eulranee 14  years  or  over. 

Length  of  course 1  year. 

Length  of  school  yeai* 9  months. 

lusti'uction  per  week 30  hours. 

Shop  instruction  (50  per  cent) 1.5  hours. 

Instruction  in  related  subjects  (30-35 

per  cent) 9  to  10*  hours. 

Instruction     in     academic     subjects 

(15-20  per  cent) 4-J  to  6  hours. 

Lengtli  of  daily  session 6  liours. 

De]iartments  of  school  comprise : 

Sliop  subjects —  , 

Sewing  trades — 
Dressmaking. 
Millinery. 
Power  machine  operating. 
Related  subjects. 

Trade  arithmetic  and  accounts. 

Textiles. 

Drawing  and  design. 

Industrial  economics. 


62 


TRADE  AXD   IXDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 


Depurtuients  of  school  comprise — Contiuued. 
Acjidemic  or  noiivocational  subjects — 

Household  scieuce  (minimum  er-;scntia]s). 

English, 

Civics  and  business  relationships. 

Commercial  Geography. 

ludustrial  history. 
Other  school  activities — 

Physical  training. 

Assemblies. 

Suggested  schedule  of  hours. 


First  year. 

Second  year. 

Minutes 

Hours 

Minutes 

Hours 

per 
subject. 

per 

Subject. 

per 

per 

Subject. 

week. 

subject. 

week. 

900 

15 

Shop. 

900 

1.5 

Shop. 

240 

4 

DraAvintc  and  applied  art. 

240 

4 

Prawing  and  applied  art. 

fO 

1 

Textiles. 

60 

1 

Textiles. 

180 

3 

Trade  and  worlcsliop  mathemat- 

180 

3 

Trade  mathematics. 

ics. 

120 

2 

Commercial  geography  or  indus- 

300 

5 

Civic    and    English    (business 

trial  history. 

methods.) 

180 

3 

English. 

120 

2 

Household  science  (minimum 
essentials  supplemental  to 
trades)  or  Industrial  Econom- 
ics. 

Physica.1  Education. 

Assemblies. 

120 

2 

Household  science  (minimum  es- 
sentials supplemental  Ictradc) 
or  industiial  economics. 

Physical  ediicaiion. 

Assemblies. 

1,800 

30 

1,800 

30 

TYPE  SHOP  COURSE. — POAVER  irACIIINE  OPERATING  IN  GARMENT  TRADES.^" 

Machine  operating  is  an  industr}'  requiring  varying  degrees  of 
skill.  The  degree  is  determined  by  the  grade  of  product  turned  out, 
and  shows  five  fairly  definite  stages  of  Avork  "which  require  (1) 
mechanical  speed;  (2)  accuracy  with  speed;  (3)  accuracy  with  deft- 
ness; (4)  constructive  ability;  (5)  artistic  ability.  The  different 
degrees  of  skill,  combined  with  the  speed  of  the  worker  and  the 
responsibilty  and  intelligence  required  in  each,  accounts  for  the  wide 
range  of  paj. 

ELEMENTAKY    POWER    itACHINE   OPERATING. 


Use  and  care  of  single  needle  machine : 
Aim^ 

To  develop  independence  and  self-reliance  in  use  of  machine. 
Control — 

Starting,  stopping — without  thread,  later  with  thread — .stitching,  spac- 
ing. 
Carc^- 

Dusting,  cleaning,  oiling,  without  and  with  removal  of  parts. 

*2  A  complete  discu.ssion  of  a  power  machine  operating  course  may  be  found  in  a  report 
on  the  organization  and  administration  of  a  Trade  School  for  Girls.  Philadelphia  Board 
of  Education,  pp.  52-60. 


rOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN.  63 

Elementary  gai'i»eiit  construction: 
Aim — 

To  teach  fimdameutal  processes,  and  to  establish  ri^ht  luibits  of  work 
in  use  of  the  power  sewing  machine,  and  the  liandling  of  cotton 
fabrics. 
Fundamental  processes — 

Seams,    hems,    facings,    and    plackets,    learned    on    simple    garuK-nt 
problems. 
Production  course  in  garment  making : 
Aim — 

To  familiarize  girl  with  work-room   organization,  division   of  labor, 
value   of   cooperation,    and   skill    by    specialization,    as    factors    in 
"  production." 
Production  problems — 

Garment  problems  analyzed  into  operations,  planning  and  routing, 
inspecting,  checking. 

ADVANCED  POWER  MACHINE  OPEEATING. 

Advanced  garmeiit  making: 

Aim —  1 

To  train  operator  in  handling  of  finer  fabrics,  the  use  of  attachments, 
greater  variety  and  more  complicated  problems. 
Instruction  and  production  problems — 

Alternation    of    instruction    problems    with    production    problems    in 
variety  of  types  of  garments;  underwear,  plain  dresses,  shirtwaists, 
skirts,  hospital  garments,  and  the  like. 
Special  machine  and  attachments : 
Aim — 

To   give   knowledge   and    training    in    the   use   of    more   complicated 
machines  with  all  their  attachments  and  diverse  functions,  multiple 
needle,    buttonhole,   hemstitching,   embroidery,   bonnaz,    zigzag,    and 
others. 
Production  and  repetitive  problems — 

Minimum  i-equiremeuts  of  operations  mastered  on  common  materials ; 
more  complex  problems  introduced  by  handling  variety  of  fabrics  or 
bj"^  repetitive  work ;  acquirement  of  knowledge  of  several  machines 
so  worker  may  "  fill  in  "  when  necessary. 
Special  garments : 
Aim — 

To  determine  the  problems  attendant  upon  production  of  a  standard 
product,  such  as  shirts  and  shirtwaists,  pants,  lingerie,  neckwear, 
and  the  like. 

(2)  Puhlic  school  of  trades  for  girls. 

Age  of  entrance 14  years  and  over. 

Length  of  course  (approximately) 2  year.s. 

Length  of  school  year 11  months. 

Instruction  per  week 35  hours. 

Shop  instiniction  (§  time) 21  hours. 

Instruction  supplemental  to  trade  (*  time)_  14  hours. 
Length  of  daily  session  (S.30-12;  1-4.30) 7  hours. 


64  TRADE   AXD   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

The  course  of  instruction  in  eadi  trade  includes : 

1.  Shop  practice  and  trade  talks. 

2.  Drawing  and  applied  art. 

3.  Trade  and  workshop  matlieuiatics. 

4.  Englisli  and  lousiness  correspondence. 

5.  Household   science. 
G.  IMiysIcal  training. 

7.  Shop  inspection  trips. 

(3)  Trade  school  for  girls.  " 

Age  of  entrance 14  years  and  over. 

(Eligible  for  employment  certificates.) 

Length  of  course  (1,400  hours  instruction) 200  days. 

(Probationary    period,    5    months.      Experience    in 
trade  necessary  for  certificate,  3  months.) 

Length  of  school  year 11  months. 

Instruction  per  week 35  hours. 

Approximate  apportionment  of  hours : 

Trade  practice  (5  hours  per  day) 2.5 

Instruction  nonvocational  subjects  supple- 
mental to  trades  (1*  hours  per  day) 74 

Hygiene  and  gymnasium  (|  hour  per  day)_     2j 

Length  of  "daily  .session  (9-12;  1-5) 7  hours. 

The  trade  departments  of  the  school  comprise: 
Needle  trades. 

Electric  power  operating  machines. 
Pasting  trades. 

Embroidery  designing  and  perforating  of  embroidery  patterns. 
Supplemental  instruction  includes : 
Trade  arithmetic  and  accounts. 
Textiles. 

Drawing  and  costume  design. 
Industrial  conditions  and  trade  ethics. 
English. 
Physical  training. 

(.J)    Girls'  vocational  high  school. 

Minimum  age  of  entrance 14  years  and  over. 

Graduation  for  eighth  grade. 

Length  of  course 2  years. 

Length  of  school  year 40  M'eeks. 

Summer  term 6  weeks. 

Instruction  per  week 324  hours. 

Shop  instruction  (4  time). 

Instruction  in  related  subjects  (i  time). 

Instruction  in  academic  subjects  (i  time). 

Length  of  daily  session  (8.30-12;  12.50-3.-50) GA  hours. 

Shop  subjects  include: 
Dressmaking. 
Junior  nursing. 
Millinery. 

Power-machine  operating. 
Telegraphy. 


FOE  GIRLS  AXD  WOMEi^T. 


65 


Related  subjects:  Matlieuiatics,  science,  drawinc 
Academic  subjects :   English,    civics,   history,   or 
Assemblies. 
Phj-sical  training. 


etc. 
commercial 


geography. 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  TELEGRArHY. 

Like  other  courses  ofrered  in  the  clay  vocational  school  for  girls  the 
usual  length  of  a  course  in  telegraphy  is  two  years.  A  one-year  course 
is  offered  for  girls  betAveen  17  and  25  years  of  age,  as  preference  is 
indicated  by  employers  for  applicants  of  this  age  in  initial  placement 
in  branch  offices  of  telegraph  companies  and  in  railroad  work.  Rail- 
way companies  maintaining  their  own  systems  of  training  exercise 
great  care  in  the  clioice  of  applicants  for  training  in  order  to  secure 
100  per  cent  placement.  A  one-year  course  for  the  older  group  of 
girls  who  have  had  two  years  of  high-school  work,  or  its  equivalent, 
distributes  the  hours  of  instruction  as  follows: 


Hours. 

Telegraphy  (telephony) 15 

Tj-pewriting 5 

English  and  civics 5 

Mathematics    3 

Commercial  geography 2 

30 

riiysical  training  and  hygiene. 


Ilours. 
Telegraphy 15 

Typewriting 5 

English  and  civics 5 

Accounting 3 

Commercial  law 2 


30 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  MECHANICAL  DRAFTING. 


The  following  course  is  outlined  as  a  one-year  trade  course  in  me- 
chanical drafting  for  girls  with  at  least  two  years  of  high-school  edu- 
cation, or  its  equivalent.  It  could  readily  be  expanded  into  two  years' 
work,  arranged  for  part-time  instruction,  or  in  units  for  evening 
classes.  During  the  war  it  was  impossible  to  supply  the  demand,  and 
girls  went  to  work  almost  as  soon  as  they  were  able  to  qualify  as 
tracers  and  copyists.  The  distribution  of  time  and  content  of  the 
course  follow: 

Hours. 
Drafting I5 

Elementary  physics,  stressing  mechanics.  ] 

Mathematics,  including  problems  on  geometrical  construction  J  "^ 

English  and  civics 5 

Shop  Vv'-ork   (elementary) 3 

Industrial  history  or  economics 2 


30 


107S7'— 20- 


6G  TRADE  AND  INDUSTEIAL  EDUCATION 

Physical  training  and  hygiene. 
Drafting ; 

1.  The  use  of  instruments— scale  protractor,  slide  rule,  and  calculations — ig 

taught  during  regular  lessons,  not  as  a  separate  topic. 

2.  Lettering  practice  throughout  the  course. 

3.  Exercises  involving  the  use  of  standard  conventional  representations. 

4.  Reading  of  blue  prints  and  drawings. 

5.  Tracing  on  paper  and  cloth. 

6.  Free  hand  sketching  of  machines, 

7.  Finishing  sketches. 

8.  Making  assemlily  drawings. 

9.  Making  detail  from  assembly  drawings. 

10.  Isometric  projection,  perspective,  and  development  of  surfaces. 
Elementary  shop  instruction,  given  in  connection  with  the  above  course,  provides : 

1.  Practice  in  machine  shop,  including  operations  on — 

a.  Drill  press. 
h.  Milling  machine. 
c.  Planer. 

d.  Shaper. 

e.  Lathe,  etc. 

2.  Practice  in  simple  operations  of— 

0.  Turning. 

6.  Boring. 

c.  Thread  cutting. 

For  the  girl,  tlie  all-day  trade  school  experience  is  charajCterized 
by  the  aAvakening  of  her  industrial  consciousness,  helping  her  dis- 
cover herself  and  her  potentialities  as  a  producer ;  and  bj?^  the  develop- 
ing of  right  attitudes  toward  work  and  its  possibilities  for  progression 
and  advancement  with  adequate  compensation. 

The  all-day  school  for  girls  has  been  slow  in  groAvth,  and  has 
developed  under  tremendous  handicaps  and  prejudices.  That  these 
schools  have  persisted  and  at  the  present  time  form  an  integral  part 
of  about  20  public-school  systems  in  various  localities  throughout 
the  United  States,  indicates  that  they  have  mot  a  need. 

For  the  smaller  cities  it  is  possible  to  develop  a  girls'  vocational 
school  or  department,  Avhere  instruction  may  be  given  in  home  making 
and  in  trades,  with  due  recognition  of  the  difference  in  courses  accord- 
ing to  the  aim  in  view. 

TAKT-TIME  SCHOOLS  AND  CLASSES. 
THE  FIELD  FOE  PAKT-TIIIE  EDrCATIOX. 

From  the  rapid  growth  of  the  movement  for  compulsory  part-time 
legislation  it  ma}'^  be  inferred  that  the  facts  concerning  school  attend- 
ance and  juvenile  wage  earning  have  become  conmion  knowledge. 
States  are  assuming  the  responsibility  for  their  share  of  the  national 
problem,  which  is  stated  here  for  the  purpose  of  calling  attention  to 
the  national  need. 


rOR  GIRLS  AXD  WOMEIT.  67 

That  great  numbers  of  boj^s  and  girls  quit  school  during  the  upper 
elementary  grades  is  proved  l^y  the  distribution  of  the  total  school 
enrollment  of  the  country.  The  1917  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  (p.  7)  shows  that  the  total  school  enrollment  of  1915  was 
21,958,836,  distributed  as  follows : 

Ter  cent. 

In  elementary  schools 91.  03 

In  high  schools,  academies,  r.nd  secondary  schools 7. 13 

In  higher  institutions 1.84 

The  attendance  begins  a  precipitate  decline  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
grade  and  at  the  age  of  14  j^ears.  According  to  the  Federal  census 
in  1910  the  percentage  of  boj'S  and  g'irls  not  in  school  differed 
slightly. 

rcrccntagc  not  in  school. 

Boys.  Girls. 

At  13  years  of  age 11.  7  10.  7 

At  17  years  of  age GG.  G  63.  4 

Approximately  2,000,000  children  arrive  at  a  given  age  annually. 
One-half  of  the  children  of  IG  years  and  under  17  have  left  school 
either  in  that  year  of  age  or  at  some  younger  age.  Of  those  17  and 
under  18  years,  two-thirds  have  left  school,  and  of  those  18  and  under 
19 — that  is  to  say,  of  those  classified  in  the  census  as  18  years  of  age — ■ 
more  than  three-fourths  have  left  school.  Of  all  boys  14  and  15 
years  of  age,  i.  e.,  between  the  exact  ages  14  and  16  years,  41.4  per 
cent,  or  two-filths,  and  of  all  girls  in  these  ages  19.8  per  cent,  or  one- 
fifth,  are  in  gainful  emplojmients.  (Federal  Census,  1910,  Vol.  IV", 
p.  69.)  The  number  gainfully  employed  in  the  ages  14  and  15 
years  has  been  estimated  for  1918  as  being  approximately  800,000 
boys  and  400,000  girls. 

So  far  as  employment  records  are  available  at  the  present  time,  the 
number  of  girls  between  14  and  16  gainfidly  emiDloyed  varies  from 
one-third  to  one-half  the  total  number  of  employed  youth. 

Because  of  the  large  numbers  of  children  who  leave  school  at  an 
early  age,  without  opportunity  for  choice  of  an  occupation  or  an  ade- 
quate understanding  of  the  need  of  preparation  for  it,  and  because 
these  same  boys  and  girls  drift  into  uneducative  and  unprogressive 
jobs,  it  is  imperative  that  the  public  school  extend  its  responsibilities 
to  meet  the  needs  of  youths  who  have  aft-eady  entered  employment  by 
establishing  part-time  schools  and  classes. 

The  object  of  the  part-time  school  is  to  extend  an  educational 
service  to  boys  and  girls  during  the  transition  from  school  to  work, 
conserving  their  education  and  extending  it ;  helping  tiiem  choose  a 
vocation,  counseling  and  following  them  up  in  order  that  their 
schooling  experience  may  be  closely  related  to  their  needs  and  duties 
as  potential  citizens  and  workers.    Compulsory  part-time  legislation 


68  TRADE   AND   I2TDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

presupposes  compulsory  school  attendance  laws,  the  regulation  of 
work  permits,  tlie  prohibition  of  employment  of  minors  in  occupa- 
tions dangerous  to  health  and  morals,  the  regulation  of  hours  of 
labor  and  of  conditions  of  employment.  In  most  States  this  social 
legislation  sets  more  stringent  restrictions  on  girls  than  on  boys. 

By  linking  up  child-labor  laws,  the  compulsory  school-attendance 
laws,  and  laws  providing  educational  supervision  of  employed  chil- 
dren it  is  possible  to  emphasize  the  new  conception  of  the  child's 
relation  to  education  and  to  industry  and  tlie  importance  of  real 
preparation  for  future  Avork.  It  is  likevvise  possible  to  establish  the 
principle  that  the  young  child  is  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  at  once 
attaining  the  independent  status  of  the  wage-earning  adult  when  she 
enters  employment.  The  continuation  school  is  the  direct  outgrowth 
of  modern  industrial  elevelopment,  subdivision  of  labor,  introduction 
of  machines,  tiie  evolution  of  the  factory  system,  and  the  growing 
conviction  that  the  State  must  look  to  the  future  and  m.eet  the  needs 
of  all  its  children,  ^t  must  bridge  the  gap  between  school  and  work 
and  between  juvenile  and  adult  employment. 

Assuming  that  this  measure  is  socially  and  economicallyjustifiable, 
it  becomes  at  once  an  educational  responsibility  and  opportunity  re- 
quiring the  cooperation  of  the  emj)loyer,  the  worker,  the  school,  and 
of  all  other  social  agencies  organized  to  serve  the  youth  during  the 
formative  years.  Xo  single  agency  can  secure  effective  results  alone. 
In  order  to  foster  a  public  sentiment  favorable  to  the  measure,  it  is 
desirable  to  secure  the  confidence  of  parents  and  employers  and  con- 
vince them  that  the  scliool  is  undertaking  a  piece  of  practical  work. 

To  bring  home  to  parents  the  significance  and  possibilities  of  con- 
tinuation schools  should  be  the  work  of  an  advisory  committee.  Occa- 
sion should  be  made  to  explain  the  State  law  in  public  meetings, 
parent-teacher  associations,  denominational  gatherings,  social  clubs, 
and  political  organizations.  In  this  way  parents  may  know  what 
education  means  to  their  children.  It  is  not  strange  that  they  take 
short  views  and  consider  that  the  child's  wages  are  of  more  value 
to  their  household  than  "  book  learning."  When  once  convinced  of 
the  advantage  of  education  in  the  life  of  the  child  the  parents  become 
supporters  of  the  program. 

The  labor  organizations  ai%  an  important  influence  in  conserving 
and  safeguarding  the  interests  of  the  child,  and  have  always  recorded 
their  approval  and  rendered  assistance  in  an}-  constructive  program 
which  insures  to  youth  a  wholesome  balance  of  education  and  recrea-v 
tion  as  well  as  work. 

There  is  no  better  ally  in  the  enterprise  than  a  public-spirited  em 
ployer  wlio  serves  as  a  pacemaker  in  his  community.     Evei'y  effort 
should  be  made  to  enlist  the  interest  and  support  of  every  such! 


FOR  GIRLS  AL'D  W0J,IE2T.  69 

cmi^loyer  and  to  utilize  any  assistance  he  offers.  Tliis  means  inter- 
views and  conferences  relative  to  determining  policies  and  i^ro- 
grams.  It  often  means  reorganization  of  departments  in  wliicli  the 
young  people  are  employed  and  readjustment  between  their  work 
and  their  school  program. 

ISIost  effective  cooperation  has  been  obtained  by  the  vocational 
or  advisory  committee  of  a  local  chamber  of  commerce  through  pro- 
viding a  program  for  a  i^ublic  meeting  prior  to  the  opening  of 
school,  at  which  a  brief  explanation  of  the  compulsory-education 
laws,  the  Federal  child  labor  laAV,  the  State  regulations  for  issuance 
of  employment  permits,  and  the  local  program  for  j)art-time  classes 
may  be  explained.  Not  infrequently  the  result  of  such  meeting  is 
the  return  of  many  children  to  the  regular  school. 

With  the  desire  to  serve  the  immediate  needs  of  large  groups  of 
young  workers,  the  Federal  Board  has  placed  a  liberal  interpretation 
upon  the  Federal  act  as  regards  the  provision,  in  itself  liberal,  to  the 
effect  that  instruction  offered  in  general  continuation  schools  may  be 
any  instruction  ''  to  enlarge  the  civic  and  vocational  intelligence  "  of 
workers  over  14  years  of  age.  "  Federal  moneys  may  be  used  in  part- 
time  schools  and  classes  for  salaries  of  instructors  in  trade,  home 
economics,  industrial,  commercial,  and  general  education  subjects." 
In  other  words,  any  educational  program  related  to  work  in  the  store, 
the  office^  the  shop,  the  factory,  or  the  home,  or  necessary  for  general 
improvement  and  good  citizenship,  may  be  subsidized  if  it  extends 
over  a  minimum  period  of  144  hours  per  year.  If  more  than  50  per 
cent  of  the  program  is  devoted  to  specific  instruction  in  a  definite 
vocation  it  becomes  a  commercial  continuation  class  or  a  continua- 
tion class  in  home  economics  or  a  trade  and  industrial  continuation 
class. 

Although  the  movement  for  compulsory  part-time  schools  is  of 
recent  origin  in  the  United  States,  3-et  in  Septemher,  1920,  the  follow- 
ing 19  States  will  have  schools  in  operation  : 


Arizona. 

Ciiliforuia. 

Illinois. 

Iowa. 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan. 

Missouri. 

Montana. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada. 


New  York. 

New  Jersey. 

New  Mexico. 

Oklahoma. 

Oregon. 

renn.-^ylvania. 

Utah. 

Wasliington. 

Wisconsin. 


In  addition  to  the  States  which  now  have  legislation  for  compul- 
sory part-time  school  attendajice,  Indiana,  Ohio,  West  Virginia,  and 
Connecticut  have  taken  initial  stejDs  toward  the  establishment  of  simi- 
lar provisions  for  minors. 


70  TRADE  AND  INDUSTFJAL   EDUCATIOlSr 

The  provisions  of  State  laws  differ  in  respect  to  school-leaving 
age,  hours,  and  place  and  age  of  required  attendance  in  part-time 
classes.  The  age  of  compulsory  full-time  attendance  varies  from  14 
to  16  years ;  the  age  of  compulsory  part-time  attendance  va.ries  from 
14  to  18;  the  hours  of  required  instruction  per  week  from  4  to  8 
in  periods  of  varying  lengths. 

The  imminent  problem  confronting  the  States  which  are  inaugu- 
rating this  program  is  one  of  recruiting  teachers  v.'ith  a  decidedly 
social  point  of  view  and  training  them  for  a  new  type  of  service.  If 
the  need  of  the  continuation  school  is  realized,  it  will  be  self-evident 
that  the  good  teacher  must  possess  high  qualities  of  character  and 
temperament,  sympathy  with  the  desires  and  aspirations  of  youth,  a 
comprehension  of  its  qualities  and  limitations,  and  a  power  to  explain 
the  interplay  of  knowledge  and  life,  simply  and  patiently,  and  to 
imj^lant  an  enthusiasm  which  will  bear  fruit. 

More  than  this,  the  teacher  should  become  familiar  with  the  work- 
a-day  lives  her  pupils  lead ;  with  the  organization  of  the  oftices,  fac- 
tories, or  stores  in  which  their  working  hours  are  spent ;  with  their 
tastes  and  habits  in  times  of  leisure ;  and  with  the  conditions  of  their 
home  life.  Experience  as  a  leader  and  organizer  of  girl's  clubs  or  as 
director  of  playground  and  recreational  activities  will  be  most  help- 
ful. Industrial  experience  would  enable  tlie  teacher  to  make  her 
relations  intimate,  personal,  and  human  instead  of  academic  and 
remote. 

However  carefully  these  teachers  are  recruited,  short  periods  oi 
special  training  in  the  purposes  and  methods  of  education  and  their 
application  to  the  problems  of  the  continuation  schools  will  generally 
be  necessary.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  short  recurrent  courses  for 
improvement  of  teachers  in  service  likewise  must  be  worked  out  par- 
allel to  the  development  of  the  enterprise.  The  experiences  of  Wis- 
consin, Boston,  and  Pennsylvania  furnish  some  background,  yet  it 
w^ill  be  necessary  for  each  State  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  assist- 
ing its  own  communities  in  the  appointment  of  competent  staffs  of 
instructors. 

A  number  of  recent  publications  will  be  found  of  assistance  in 
enabling  States  and  localities  to  work  out  the  details  of  plans  for  the 
establishment  of  schools.  Among  those  readily  available  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Bulletin  on  Course  of  Study  and  Administration  for  Continua- 
tion Schools,  Harrisburg,  Pa,    1918.    Eevised  1920.     . 

Boston  Continuation  School,  School  Document  No.  4,  1919. 

Introductory  Course  in  Part-Time  Education- — University  of 
California  in  cooperation  Avith  State  Board  of  EducatioHj 
1920. 


FOR  GirxLS   AXD  ^VOMElsT.  71 

ISIicliigan  State  Board  of  Control  of  Vocational  Education  Bul- 
letin No.  212,  May,  1920. 

UniversitA^  of  the  State  of  Ncav  York  Bulletin  No.  G97,  Organiza- 
tion and  Administration  of  Part-Time  Schools. 

In  the  last  analysis  the  success  of  any  program  will  depend  on  the 
ability  of  the  local  organization  to  meet  community  conditions.  The 
location  of  classes,  the  enforcement  of  attendance,  the  making  of 
routine  records  and  forms,  the  grouping  of  students,  the  segregation 
of  classes,  the  determination  of  the  length  of  sessions,  and  the  prepa- 
ration of  a  program  of  instruction  are  responsibilities  of  the  local 
str.ff.  There  are  certain  general  facts  which  may  guide  in  determin- 
ing the  organization. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  certain  services  may  be  expected  in 
the  part-time  school  besides  instruction,  such  as  care  of  health,  voca- 
tional counsel,  placement,  and  follow-up. 

The  factors  that  determine  the  classification  of  pupils  in  groups  are 
age,  school  attainment,  present  occupation,  and  prospective  occupa- 
tion. In  all  probability  the  most  expedient  basis  of  organization  for 
instruction  is  school  attainment,  but  it  is  one  which  unfortunately 
easily  leads  to  the  making  of  the  part-time  program,  one  which  pro- 
vides simply  for  an  extension  of  the  regular  school  work.  With  the 
younger  group  instruction  for  general  improvement  will  probably 
dominate.  It  will  be  based  on  an  interpretation  of  working  ex- 
periences and  new  applications  of  the  fundamentals  of  a  general 
education.  The  amount  of  vocational  work  will  be  increased  with 
the  age  of  the  pupils,  and  may  be  designed  to  fit  the  needs  of  indi- 
viduals in  their  present  job,  or  to  prepare  for  promotion,  or  to  change 
to  another  position. 

The  courses  and  methods  of  instruction  must  take  into  consid- 
eration the  following  items : 

1.  That  new  pupils  are  entering  constantly  as  old  pupils  arrive 
at  the  age  limit  and  leave. 

2.  That  the  periods  of  attendance  are  short,  with  intervals  between. 

3.  That  the  pupils  are  of  varying  grades  of  school  attainment. 

^  4.  That  many  have  left  school  because  of  distaste  for  study  and 
discipline. 

5.  That  they  are  experiencing  the  influences  of  adolescence. 

C.  That  they  are  workers  with  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  life  as 
seen  from  the  shop,  the  factory,  or  the  store,  and  the  street,  expect- 
ing recognition  of  the  change  in  point  of  view  which  their  new 
experiences  have  wrought. 

From  these  considerations  it  will  be  evident  that  the  program  and 
methods  of  teaching  must  depart  from  those  of  the  regular  day 
school.     Class   work  becomes   difficult   and  undesirable,   and  more 


72  TRADE   A^:D   IXDUSTrj.iL   EDUCATION 

dependence  must  be  placed  on  individual  instruction.  Continuity 
of  subject  matter  is  essential  and  is  best  preserved  when  each  lesson 
is  a  unit  in  itself,  which  can  readily  be  renewed  and  made  the 
be<rinnino:  point  for  new  work. 

The  following  programs  indicate  some  A^ariations  in  the  time 
allotment  to  the  subjects  included  in  continuation  school  programs 
as  mlluenced  by  the  provisions  of  the  different  States : 

/.  Svffgcsicd  sehedttlc  of  suhjccts  and  Itours.^' 

(Based  on  S  liours  per  week,  36  weeks  per  year.) 

GENERAL  COXTIXUATIOX  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  CROUr. 

Hours. 

Enjrlisli — ■ — ■^- 1 

Social  sciences  (citizenship,  industrial  history,  and  economics) ,__  1 

Arithmetic,    includhig    shop    problems,    the    personal    budget,    and    thrift 

problems ^. 1 

Health  and  safety 1 

Industrial  subjects,  including  drawing,  study  of  materials,  and  industrial 

laws . 4 

For  girls  in  the  industrial  gi'oup  two  hours  per  we^^k  should  be  taken  from  the 
above  subjects  for  homemaking  courses. 

GENERAL  CONTINUATION  TOR  COMMERCIAL  GROUPS. 

Ilours. 

English  (business  chiefly) 2 

Social  sciences  (citizenship,  industrial  history,  and  economics) __, 1 

Commercial  arithmetic,  with  attention  to  the  personal  budget  and  thrift —  1 

Health  and  safety 1 

Bookkeeping  and  filing 3 

Or, 

Shorthand  aud  typewriting 3 

Or, 

Salesmanship  and  merchandise  study 3 

For  girls  in  the  commercial  group,  two  hours  per  week  should  be  taken  from 
the  above  subjects  for  homemaking  courses. 

GENERAL  CONTINUATION  FOR  ACADEMIC  GROUP, 

Hours. 

Engllsh___ , 1 

Social  .sciences  (citizenship,  industrial  history,  and  economics) 1 

Arithmetic  based  on  work  in  the  home  and  including  thrift 1 

Health  and  safety 1 

Homemaking  subjects,  including  art  and  study  of  household  materials  and 

foods 1 

Or, 

General  study  of  industry  and  business 4 

Or. 

General  study  of  industry  and  business  aud  varied  shopwork , 4 

"  The  compulsory  Part-Time  School,  Bulletin  No.  212,  Michigao  State  Board  of  Conti-ol 

for  Vocational  Education,  pp.  17-18. 


FOR  GiELS  ai:d  VrOilEX.  73 

//.  Schedule  of  subjects  and  time  allotment  in  general  continuation  school." 

(Based  on  S  hours  per  week,  30  weeks  per  year.) 

Miniifes 
per  week. 

English 80 

Current  events 40 

Hygiene  (25)  and  recreation  (15) 40 

Industrial  geography 40 

Civics  (25)  and  music  (15) 40 

Aritmetic 60 

Drawing GO 

Practical  work 120 

Trade  or  industrial. 

Commercial. 

Home  economics. 

///.  Oullinc  of  part-time  courses  (general  contimiation)  indicating  suitable  dis- 
tribution of  /iHlC." 

(Based  on  4-8  hours  per  week,  3G  weeks  per  year.) 

Four-         Eight- 
hour  pro-  hour  pro- 
gram,       gram. 

American  history,  industrial  liistory,  civics,  and  economics 30  60 

English -, 30  60 

Arithmetic  and  applied  mathematics 30      -     60 

Hygiene  and  physical  training 30  GO 

Industrial   subjects,   as   shopwork,   drawing,   laws   relating   to 

industries 120  240 

or 
Homemaking   subjects,    as   cooking,   sewing,    home   decoration, 

household  sanitation,  millinery 120  240 

or 
Commercial  subjects,  as  elementary  vocational  business  practice, 

bookkeeping,  typewriting,  filing,  shorthand,  and  retail  selling-     120  210 

IV.  General  continuation  classes  in  the  textile  industries  of  the  SoutJiern  States." 

(The  allotment  of  time  is  based  upon  4  hours,  or  240  minutes,  per  week  for  36 
Aveeks.    The  minimum  requirement  of  law— 144  hours  per  year.) 

Minutes 
per  week. 

English :  Reading,  composition,  oral  and  writtenl 30 

Spelling   and   penmanship    (15   minutes  each   per  week,   or  on   alternate 

weeks) 30 

Arithmetic 30 

Citizenship,  current  events,  industrial  geography  (on  alternate  weeks) 30 

Physical  training :  Hygiene,  safety  first,  first  aid,  15  minutes ;  gymnastics,  5 

minutes   (games  out  of  regular  hours) 20 

i*A  Bulletin  on  Cour.se  of  Study  and  Administration — for  Continuation  Schools.  State 
Board  of  Education,  Bureau  of  Vocational  Education,  Ilarrisburs,  Pa.     1918.     P.  4. 

>5  Organization  and  Administration  of  Part-Time  Schools.  University  of  the  State  of 
New  York  Bulletin.     1920.     Pp.  22-23. 

i»  Evening  and  Part-Time  Schools  in  the  Textile  Industry  of  the  Southern  States,  Bulle- 
tin No.  30,  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  p.  9G. 


74  TKADE   AND   IXDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

Minntos 
per  week. 

General  science  (agriculture  and  gardening  in  season;  nature  siudy) 20 

Sliopwork,  boys    (according  to  facilities  for  instructions),  or  connnercial 

subjects,  typewriting  and  accounting,  or  practical  home  making,  girls, 

including  general  housekeeping,  cooking,  and  sewing 40 

Household    mechanics . —  20 

Assemblies  (to  be  used  for  general  talks,  confereiices,  and  group  activities)-  20 

V.  General  continuation  class — approximate  sclicdiilc  of  stihjects  and  time." 

(Based  on  4  hours  per  week.) 

Minutes. 

English — oral  and  written 40 

Civics 20 

Hygiene 20 

Arithmetic   and    drawing 40 

Shop  or  commercial  subjects 120 

TI.  Gener<il  continuation  class — approximate  schedule  of  subjects  and  time}* 

(Based  on  4  hours  per  week.) 

Minutes 
weekly. 

Citizenship  and  health  (required  by  law) 40 

Common-school  branches,  such  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  an-d  spelling,    80 
Occupational  work,  including  finding  courses  in  agriculture,  industry,  com- 
merce or  home  economics 120 

THE  GIRL,  THE  JOB,   AND  THE  rART-TISIE  SCHOOL. 

Educators  now  recognize  the  right  of  working  children  to  part- 
time  instruction,  but  are  apt  to  slight  the  working  girl  in  the  early 
stages  of  organizing  continuation  classes,  partly  because  their  atten- 
tion is  diverted  to  the  nonconformist  schoolboy — a  greater  problem 
numerically  and  psychologically.  Nevertheless,  the  girl  is  just  as 
seriously  handicapped  by  lack  of  training  for  a  job  and  is  even  in 
greater  need  of  vocational  education  and  relaxation  because  of  the 
economic  pressure  of  disturbed  domestic  relationships  that  sends  her 
forth  from  home  to  vs^ork. 

Conditions  of  the  home  have  more  to  do  with  girls'  withdrawal 
from  school  than  any  other  reason,  whereas  a  boy's  reason  for  with- 
drawal is  usually  connected  with  the  school.  Girls  go  to  work  in 
response  to  the  economic  and  physical  needs  of  the  home ;  seldom  from 
dislike  of  school  or  preference  for  work.  Boys  may  come  from  homes 
w^here  economic  rjid  physical  needs  are  not  pressing.  Courses  of 
study,  methods  of  teaching,  and  school  discipline  do  not  appeal  to 
them,  and  the  mechanically  inclined  express  a  preference  for  Avork. 

"Boston  Continuation  School — School  Document  No.  4,  1919.     P.  1.5. 
"  Introductory  Course  in  Part-Time  Education.     University  of  California  in  Cooperation 
with  the  State  Board  of  Education.     P.  44. 


FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN.  75 

IMost  people  fail  to  ariahv.e  the  mental  states  of  the  girl  worker. 
She  is  influenced  by  the  popular  belief  and  expectation  that  wage 
earning  is  not  a  permanent  proposition.  She  wants  to  go  with  the 
throng,  do  what  other  girls  do,  have  what  other  girls  have,  and,  what 
is  more,  be  seen  having  it.  She  is  influenced  by  friends  in  the  choice  of 
school,  work,  clothes,  recreation,  etc.  She  sets  the  seen  above  the 
unseen,  the  immediate  over  and  against  the  more  remote.  She  is 
influenced  by  the  social  prejudices  toward  levels  of  employment.  She 
is  conservative  because  hampered  by  the  dread  of  change  and  shift. 
She  is  daring  because,  having  little  to  lose,  she  is  Avilling  to  hazard  all 
and  get  a  new  job,  if  necessar3^ 

Usually  a  high  percentage  of  girl  industrial  workers  live  at  home 
or  with  relatives,  especially  those  under  18  years  of  age.  Boarding 
homes  in  connection  with  industrial  jolants  indicate  an  increasing 
tendency  on  the  part  of  young  workers  to  leave  home  for  better  wages 
or  more  congenial  emjDlo3'ment.  It  is  very  much  to  be  hoped  that  part 
of  the  time  in  the  continuation  school  will  be  devoted  to  learning  a 
real  job  olTering  economic  independence  at  an  early  age,  since  the 
chance  of  attaining  a  marital  condition  in  which  the  wife  does  not 
share — if  not  actually  bear — the  economic  burden  of  the  family  is 
slight.  It  is  very  certain  that  unless  vocational  instruction  is  easily 
accessible  and  an  accepted  part  of  the  program,  the  disposition  to  use 
spare  time  or  money  for  self-improvement  is  unavailing. 

Girls  who  withdraw  from  the  public  school  either  resume  further 
schooling,  remain  at  home,  or  go  to  work.  The  public  school  may 
accept  such  instruction  as  is  accorded  recognition  under  the  terms  of 
the  compulsory  attendance  hiAvs  of  the  State  either  for  day  or  part- 
time  classes. 

jMany  girls  leave  the  upper  elementary  grades  urged  by  personal 
solicitation  and  attractive  literature  bidding  them  to  short  vocational 
courses  preparing  for  wage  earning  in  which  too  earlj  an  entrance 
will  be  a  positive  handicap  throughout  their  working  life.  The 
diverse  types  of  service  in  connection  with  the  attendance  depart- 
ment, guidance,  p^nd  placement  bureaus  may  be  of  advantage  to  these 
girls,  many  of  whom- gravitate  into  cities  from  small  towns  and  rural 
communities. 

Girls  with  home  permits  should  be  served,  in  the  main,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  their  present  experience  through  interpretation  and 
instruction,  return  to  them  the  greatest  possible  educational  growth, 
yet  they  should  also  be  considered  in  the  light  of  their  possible 
entrance  to  wage  earning. 

Training  for  a  vocation  is  a  valuable  training  for  the  future  home- 
makers,  and  can  be  made  to  cover  ail  the  relations  of  life.  To  get 
a  job,  hold  it,  and  advance  in  it,  and  make  it  worth  while,  and  have 
it  make  you  worth  while  is  sound  philosoph}^  for  the  shop,  the  oflice, 


76  TRADE   AXD   IXDUSTRIAL  EDUCATIOIT 

or  the  home.  It  takes  not  incidental  attention,  but  phmning,  organiz- 
ing, systematizing,  and  self-sacrifice. 

There  is  always  some  shifting  between  groups,  from  the  home  to  the 
working  group,  or  vice  versa,  as  well  as  from'  the  working  to  the 
unemployed  group.  The  girl  wlTo  stays  at  home  to  help  may  be  a 
bona  fide  housekeeper  for  the  father,  a  helper  in  case  of  illness  in 
the  family,  a  temporary  housekeeper  and  caretaker  of  the  younger 
children  because  the  mother  is  at  work,  or  temporarily  detained 
because  of  her  own  ill  health.  As  soon  as  the  need  for  her  help  at 
home  no  longer  exists,  younger  children  having  arrived  at  a  state  of 
self-dependence,  or  her  health  is  improved,  or  as  soon  as  her  possible 
earnings  can  approximate  her  mother's,  or  when  her  desires  exceed 
the  family  pocketbook,  she,  too,  will  go  to  work. 

Beside  her  dominant  training  for  homemaking,  in  anticipation  of 
this  working  experience  she  should  be  insured  a  knowledge  of  the 
economics  of  v\^age  earning  and  of  the  opportunities  for  the  same. 
Upon  these  essentials  depends  her  future  ability  to  take  care  of  her- 
self and  thus  to  become  a  steady  and  successful  v\'orker  instead  of  a 
casual  worker  or  dependent. 

The  group  of  girls  to  whom  work  permits  are  issued  comprises 
by  far  the  larger  number.  The  information  which  may  be  obtained 
concerning  them  through  the  various  school  departments  and  agencies 
of  service  should  be  organized  into  a  body  of  common  knowledge 
fundamental  for  the  development  of  the  part-time  program. 

The  continuation  school-teacher  should  have  such  information  as 
the  following:  The  age  and  grade  of  girls  at  the  time  of  withdrawal; 
the  reason  given  at  school,  and  the  reason  alleged  by  the  parent  at 
the  time  of  the  girl's  application  for  employment  certificate.  These 
will  reveal  the  attitude  of  the  girl  toward  schooling,  her  choice  of 
work  or  further  training,  physical  disability,  home  responsibilities, 
and  other  influencing  factors.  They  likewise  may  disclose  home 
conditions  which  can  be  remedied  in  order  to  keep  the  child  in  school, 
such  as  unemployment  in  family,  sickness,  delinquency  of  parents, 
low  wage,  and  the  like.  The  kinds  of  work  for  which  permits  are 
issued  will  bring  to  light  the  occupations  q,t  which  the  girls  are 
employed  or  which  may  be  made  available  to  them. 

The  age,  initial  wage,  and  earnings  at  the  end  of  her  minority 
may  be  significant  in  determining  what  assistance  may  best  enable 
the  girl  to  make  the  transition  from  juvenile  to  adult  employment. 

Her  expenditures  will  indicate  her  economic  status,  her  financial 
responsibilities  to  her  family,  her  savings,  and  the  cost  of  her  main- 
tenance. Home  expenses,  clothing,  food,  and  recreation  are  the  chief 
items  of  expense.  Three-fourths  of  the  women  workers  use  a  large 
portion  of  their  earnings  to  purchase  food  and  one-fourth  of  the 


FOR  GIRLS   AXD   WOMEN.  77 

workers  receiA^e  food  as  a  part  of  their  wage.^'  The  lack  of  proper 
food  not  only  causes  morbid  conditions  of  the  body  but  also  increases 
the  hazard  of  industrial  accidents  and  disease.  Personal  interest  and 
advice,  as  well  as  direct  instruction  with  reference  to  suitability  of 
dress,  health,  recreation,  public  behavior,  conduct,  and  social  con- 
ventions frequently  result  in  marked  improvement  of  the  girl. 

The  occupations  which  are  open  to  the  14  to  IG  year  old  bo}^  or 
girl  do  not  differ  greatly  in  responsibilities  or  opportunities.  She 
"fetches  and  carries,"  too,  but  in  a  more  limited  area.  A  year's 
record  of  employment  permits  in  a  midwestern  metropolis  (popula- 
tion 415,718)  records  the  occupation  of  the  14  and  15  ^'ear  old  girls 
(June,  1918-^May,  1919)  as  follows : 

Carrier  and  delivery  (inside) 1/3 

Jlercliandisc 1/4 

Mechanical  work 1/5 

Clerical 1/5 

Domestic  (recorded  only  when  supervision  is  necessary). 

For  counseling  and  placement  purposes,  information  relative  to 
establishments  in  which  these  workers  are  employed  would  be  de- 
sirable to  have  on  record,  including  such  points  as  the  following : 

1.  Number  of  workers. 

2.  Positions  in  the  firm — 

a.  Duties. 

l>.  Requirements — physical,  mental,  technical,  knowledge, 
skill. 
»  c.  Wages. 

3.  Selection  of  workers — 

a.  Sources,  method  of  hiring,  phicing,  and  releasing. 

4.  Organization  for  promotion  and  advancement. 

5.  Conditions  of  employment. 

A  rough  survey  of  the  out-of-school  group  of  girls  and  the  total 
enrollment  in  public  and  private  high  schools  of  the  country  indicates 
the  probability  of  wage  earning  for  the  girl,  the  extent  to  which  this 
motive  figures  in  her  life,  and  the  recognition  which  should  be  ac- 
corded it  in  an  educational  program. 

An  approximation  of  the  distribution  of  the  out-of-school  group 
of  girls  between  the  ages  of  14  and  20  in  1918  signifies  the  relative 
numbers  gainfully  employed  and  at  home  by  age  groups. 

i»  Food  of  Working  Women  in  Boston,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union, 
Mass.  State  Dept.  of  Ucalth,  1017. 


78 


TRADE  AXD  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATI03T 

Eslimatcd  number  of  girls  in  1918. 
(Vocational  summary,  1918,  pp.  5-G.) 


Age  group. 

Nof  in 
scliool. 

Gaintully 
employed. 

At  home. 

14  20                              

4,.3.V),riO0 

4S(),  000 
3, 870, 000 

2,400,000 

390,000 

2,100,000 

1, 860,000 

14-15     .                 

90, 000 

16-20                                  

J,  770, 000 

The  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1917,  shows  that 
the  enrollment  in  the  leading  courses  of  study  in  public  and  private 
high  schools  in  1915~16  was  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Total 100.0 

Academic  coiii'.ses 6G.  -1 

Commercial  courses 13.  7 

Technical  and  manual  training  courses 6.  9 

Training  courses  for  teachers 2.  0 

Agricultural  courses 3.  4 

Domestic  economy 7.  G 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  one-third  of  the  students 
were  enrolled  in  courses  somewhat  practical  in  character.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  the  bovs  dominate  in  technical  and  agricultural  courses 
(10.3  per  cent)  ;  and  that  the  courses  in  teaching  and  dpmesiic  econ- 
omy are  largely  confined  to  girls  (9.6  per  cent). 

In  all  probability  the  number  of  girls  enrolled  in  practical  courses 
in  the  high  school  outstrips  the  'number  of  boys  to  the  degree  to 
which  they  dominate  in  commercial  courses. 

SPECIALIZED   PAKT-TIJIE    INSTRUCTION. 

Some  beginning  experiments  have  been  made  in  various  parts  of 
the  country  which  show  possible  developments  and  variations  of  part- 
time  classes  under  this  most  flexible  organization.  The  re<iuirements 
of  the  act  are  (1)  that  the  classes  shall  be  under  public  supervision 
and  control;  (2)  that  the  minimum  age  of  the  worker  shall  be  14 
years;  or  (3)  that  the  instruction  shall  be  designed  to  increase  the 
civic  or  vocational  intelligence  and  continue  for  a  period  of  144  hours 
as  a  minimum. 

The  following  types  of  classes  fulfill  these  conditions  and  are  sub- 
sidized from  trade  and  industrial  funds : 

1.  General  continuation  schools  in  connection  with  the  textile  in- 
dustries in  the  South,  developed  by  a  system  of  pairing  the  workers. 
The  children  are  divided  into  two  shifts,  alternating  five  hours'  work 
with  three  hours'  schooling.  One  of  each  pair  of  workers  is  detailed 
for  the  morning  in  the  mill  and  for  the  afternoon  in  the  school ;  the 
other  pair  reversing  the  schedule.  The  details  of  the  plan  are  given  in 
Bulletin  No.  30,  Trade  and  Industrial  Series,  No.  5,  "  Evening  and 


1 


FOE   GIRLS   AND  WOMEIST.  7& 

Part-time  Schools  in  the  Textile  Industry  of  the  Southern  States," 
issued  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

2.  As  a  part-time  trade  preparatory  class  in  a  general  continuation 
school,  A-ocational  instruction  was  made  possible  through  the  coo})era- 
tion  of  an  interested  employer.  His  motives  could  not  be  questioned, 
as  he  employed  none  but  mature  women  in  his  own  factory,  which 
closed  for  the  week  at  11  o'clock  on  Saturdays.  A  group  of  continua- 
tion-school girls  desirous  of  learning  the  power  machine  operating 
trade  were  organized  under  the  direction  of  the  regular  continuation- 
school  teacher  and  were  permitted  to  use  the  machines  under  the 
supervision  of  the  forewoman  and  factory  instructor  Avho  gave  the 
work  as  employees  of  the  public-school  system.  A  similar  experi- 
ment was  tried  in  a  shirt  and  underwear  factory,  also,  in  the  teaching 
of  knitting,  topping,  and  looping  in  a  hosiery  mill. 

3.  Trade  preparatory  instruction.  In  order  to  extend  a  service 
through  industry  to  the  factory  operative  forewoman  and  supervisor, 
the  Federal  Board  has  rided  that  trade  preparatory  instruction  may 
be  given  in  part-time  classes  under  the  folloAving  conditions :  Workers 
who  are  employed  or  who  are  under  agreement  for  employment  may 
be  given  such  instruction  under  public  supervision  and  control  as 
will  secure  for  them  advantageous  entrance  to  a  trade  or  industrial 
occupation  provided  the  instruction  period  is  IM  hours  and  other- 
wise fulfills  the  requirements  of  the  Federal  act.  Classes  of  this  type 
are  in  operation  in  garment  factories.  The  new  worker  is  assigned 
to  a  training  department  where  she  receives  instruction  from  a  teacher 
employed  by  the  public  school.  AVhen  the  learner  reaches  a  certain 
degree  of  proficiency  she  is  transferred  from  the  instruction  to  the 
production  department.  Training  of  women  multiplex  operators 
in  the  telegraph  offices  is  organized  on  a  similar  basis  and  approved 
for  Federal  aid. 

4.  Cooperative  part-time  classes,  organized  on  the  basis  of  an  alter- 
nation of  employment  and  instruction.  The  minimum  period  of  work 
required  is  50  per  cent  of  the  total  period  of  attendance  and  instruc- 
tion. The  time  may  be  divided  on  a  da}'',  week,  or  mont:h  basis.  For 
example :  The  "  In  and  Out "  group  in  a.n  advanced  class  in  trade 
dressmaking,  by  a  system  of  pairing  and  alternation  provides  two 
weeks'  instruction  in  school  followed  by  two  weeks'  progressive  em- 
ployment in  the  trade.  Not  only  is  the  trade  teaching  subject  to  Fed- 
eral aid  but  also  any  other  cla'sses  formed  for  specific  instruction  of 
this  segregated  group  of  workers  if  it  can  be  shown  that  the  school 
system  incurs  an  additional  expenditure  by  the  operation  of  such 
part-time  classes.  Likewise  the  salary  of  the  coordinator  wdio  by 
follow-up  work  in  the  plant  correlates  the  class  instruction  to  the 
practical  experience  may  be  paid  from  Federal  funds.  (Vocational 
Summary,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  p.  IC.) 


80  TEADE   AXD  IXDUSTEIAL  EDUCATIOIT 

5.  During  dull  season  or  shutdown  periods,  part-time  general 
continuation,  trade  preparatory,  or  trade  extension  classes  organized 
for  the  employees.  If  the  period  of  instruction  covers  144  hours  and 
otherwise  complies  with  the  terms  of  the  act  it  may  be  approved  for 
aid.  Power  machine  on  classes  m.ay  provide  an  opportunity  for  the 
worker  to  learn  the  operation  of  a  new  machine,  or  a  new  process  in- 
volved in  the  making  of  a  standard  product. 

C.  Trade-extension  classes  for  forewomen  and  "  leaders,"  organized 
for  instruction  in  subjects  relating  directly  to  the  production  factors 
or  processes.  This  may  be  given  whollj'-  on  employer's  time ;  wholly  on 
the  employee's  time ;  or  partlj'  on  the  time  of  each.  When  the  class  is 
held  during  the  closing  hour  of  the  working  day  and  extended  on  the 
employee's  time  it  becomes  a  combination  of  part-time  and  evening- 
class  instruction,  and  the  expense  is  prorated  accordingly.  The  con- 
tent of  evening  and  part-time  courses  may  be  industrial,  the  classifi- 
cation depending  upon  the  time  of  instruction.  When  given  during 
the  regular  hours  of  the  working  day  it  is  part  time ;  when  outside  the 
scheduled  hours  of  employment  it  is  classified  as  an  evening  course. 
Classes  organized  by  the  public  school  for  teaching  dietetics  and 
chemistry  to  nurses  in  training  in  local  hospitals  as  trade  extension 
classes  admit  of  either  classification  and  may  receive  subsidy  from 
the  trade  and  industrial  fund. 

The  part-time  school  overcomes  the  obstacle  of  cost;  overcomes 
the  objection  made  by  parents  to  keeping  their  children  in  school; 
overcomes  the  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  girl  to  remain  in 
school;  vitalizes  teaching  by  giving  it  a  definite  job  and  illuminates 
the  job.  The  manufacturer  and  the  merchant  frequently  provide 
the  plant  and  some  forms  of  specialized  instruction,  when  desired, 
since  the  benefits  indirectly  accrue  to  the  employer  as  well  as  to  the 
worker.  Such  schools  establish  intimate  and  solid  relations  between 
the  school  and  the  community,  emphasizing  their  interdependence. 

Among  the  advantages  which  the  Nation  may  expect  to  derive  from 
this  service  may  be  noted  the  removal  of  some  of  the  traces  of  inade- 
quate schooling  in  early  years  and  inadequate  training  in  shop  and 
factory,  which  characterize  large  numbers  of  our  adult  citizens  to-day. 
We  have  a  limited  amount  of  experience  to  guide  us.  Mr.  Fisher, 
president  of  the  British  Board  of  Education,  who  is  responsible  for 
the  inauguration  of  a  part-time  compulsory  school  attendance  pro- 
gram in  England,  says :  "  We  have  much  to  learn ;  there  is  plenty 
of  room  for  experiment,  and  we  need  not  be  afraid  of  the  method  of 
trial  and  error." 

TRAINING    IN    INDUSTRIAL    PLANTS. 

AYitli  all  the  commendable  agencies  organized  under  public  super- 
vision and  control,  the  great  multitude  of  women  workers  in  in- 


FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN.  81 

diistrlal  employment  can  not  be  reached  unless  modern  industry 
becomes  a  party  to  the  training  of  its  workers.  Because  of  bodily 
and  mental  fatigue,  obligations  to  family,  and  other  duties,  com- 
X^aratively  few  mature  women  are  able,  even  if  willing,  to  attend 
evening  classes.  For  this  reason,  if  they  are  to  be  reached,  their 
daily  work  must  be  made  a  medium  for  their  improvement  as  well 
as  a  means  of  livelihood.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  industry,  the 
worker,  and  the  loublic  alike  benefit  from  training  factory  operatives 
within  the  plant.  As  yet  no  line  of  demarcation  has  been  drawn  rela- 
tive to  that  part  of  the  training  the  cost  of  which  the  industry  itself 
should  bear  and  the  service  which  the  public  school  can  render. 

It  is  true  that  every  industrial  concern  has  been  doing  some  train- 
ing, usually  in  an  incidental  and  unorganized  way,  to  perpetuate  its 
own  existence  by  replacing  the  constant  loss  of  workers.  During  the 
war  the  problem  of  increasing  production  with  a  constantly  decreas- 
ing supply  of  experienced  workers  necessitated  the  employment  of 
large  numbers  of  women  in  war-essential  industries.  This  led  to 
experimental  training  in  jDlants  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  such 
a  wide  diversity  of  products  that  some  definite  results  were  obtained 
and  conclusions  reached.  The  United  States  Training  Service  of  the 
Department  of  Labor,  in  Bulletins  1-25,  has  recorded  the  details  of 
organization  of  training  departments  for  various  women-employing 
industries  and  provided  training  outlines.  The  rubber  industry, 
garment  industries,  including  women's  cloaks,  suits,  and  skirts ;  men's 
suits  and  overcoats ;  men's  shirts,  overalls,  and  pants ;  the  textile  in- 
dustries, including  weaving  and  knitting ;  the  making  of  piano  play- 
ers, paper  boxes,  shoes,  electrical  machinery,  optical  instruments, 
computing  machines,  automobile  parts,  aeroplanes,  all  have  experi- 
mented in  training  women  workers.  In  many  cases  during  the 
period  of  adjustment  following  the  signing  of  the  armistice  these 
departments  were  discontinued,  but  they  are  gradually  being  revived 
as  permanent  educational  departments  in  manufacturing  establish- 
ments rather  than  on  an  emergency  basis. 

Women  still  continue  to  be  an  increasingly  important  factor  in 
the  industries  'mentioned  above,  as  well  as  in  many  other  types  of 
light  metal  and  Avood-working  trades.  Their  actual  presence  and 
the  realization  of  their  possibilities  as  workers  have  lead  to  a  realign- 
ment of  tasks,  the  introduction  of  automatic-machine  devices,  and 
improvement  in  conditions  for  workers  whether  they  be  men  or 
women.  Every  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  their  work  error 
proof  and  hazard  proof.  In  many  kinds  of  machine  operating,  in- 
specting, testing,  and  assembling  of  small  parts  women  have  gained 
a  permanent  place. 

As  a  result  of  the  increased  number  of  women  in  industrial  occu- 
pations, the  need  of  women  executives  in  the  employment  depart- 
10787'— 20 6 


82  TRADE  A^^TD  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

ment  was  recognized  by  the  opening  to  women  of  tke  Go-vernnaent 
coiu'ses  in  employment  management  established  during  the  war.  Tlie 
greater  the  nnmFjer  of  inexpierienced  workers  the  greater  the  number 
of  snpervising  for-emen  necessary  to  insure  production.  It  was  found 
that  the  teaching  function  could  most  readily  be  delegated,  though 
the  factory  foreman  was  often  reluctant  to  assign  it  to  any  other 
agency  than  himself,  or  to  receive  workers  in  any  other  than,  the 
usual  way.  Experience  proved  woKsen  instructors  most  desirable 
for  instructing  the  girls  and  women  workers  entering  into  employ- 
ment. Provision  was  made  to  develop  them  within  the  plants  (1)  by 
choosing  from  among  the  skilled  workers  those  who  could  teach  and 
(2)  by  recruiting  groups  of  educationally  trained  women  who  serA'ed 
a  i)eriod  of  apprenticeship  in  the  different  departments  within  the 
plant,  being  transferred  from  department  to  department  as  they 
reached  a  certain  per  cent  of  production.  As  an  emergency  measure 
training  departments  were  inaugurated,  and  the  function  was  recog- 
nized as  separate  from  employment,  separate  from  production,  and 
separate  from  welfare,,  but  related  to  all  three.  The  demand  from 
the  factory  floor  determined  the  training.  Production  records  dis- 
closed the  need  for  up-grading  training.  By  up-grading  is  meant 
the  improving  of  an  employee's  output  by  a  brief  intensive  training 
in  the  best  methods  of  performing  a  single  o2:)eration  or  series  of 
©Iterations. 

In  some  industries  the  wc«nan  welfare  worker  arranged  for  the 
instructional  service  of  the  foreman  to  the  woman  in  need  of  assist- 
ance. Though  this  still  continties  in  some  plants,  yet  in  the  main 
two  types  of  training  schemes  developed:  (1)  A  separate  department 
with  a  follow-up  of  instruction  on  the  factory  floor,  and  (2)  train- 
ing on  special  machines  on  the  production  floor  in  industries  where 
the  type  of  automatic  machinery  prevented  the  establishment  of 
separate  training  rooms.  The  separate  traii^ing  room  is  supposed 
to  serve  as  a  "  vestibule "  or  outside  factory  to  meet  the  demands 
of  production.  It  is  under  definite  control  and  supervision  with 
definite  relatonships  established  with  the  other  departments.  To  it 
the  learner  is  assigned  by  the  employment  department  for  training 
according  to  the^needs  of  the  plant ;  the  deserving  help  may  be  up-- 
graded  for  efficiency;  workers  of  good  production  records  who 
qualify  for  promotion  may  be  taken  into  the  school  to  learn  opera- 
tions of  a  higher  grade ;  workers  of  poor-production  records  may 
be  brought  up  to  standard  or  shifted  to  a  new  job  for  which  they 
receive  training;  v.'orkers  who  are  desirous  of  getting  experience 
for  "  flj'ing  sc^uadron "  service  may  apply  for  instruction  in  order 
that  they  may  have  a  chance  to  work  in  other  departments  when 
the  season  is  slack;  and  applicants  who  claim  to  have,  experience 
may  be  tested  out  in  the  job  for  which  they  have  applied  or  for  the 


I 

I 


rOR  GIRLS  AND   WOMEN.  83 

13iirpose  of  discovering  their  abilities  or  disabilities.  Another  func- 
tion of  the  training  department  is  to  test  out  new  tools  and  new 
methods  of  operation.  The  department  is  concerned  in  methods  of 
obtaining  learners,  training,  supervising,  transferring,  and  follow- 
ing up  the  workers  by  moans  of  a  corps  of  advanced  instructors. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  from  training  upon  production  accord- 
ing to  standards  set  by  planning  departments. 

Training  on  the  factory  floor  in  shops  in  which  conditions  will 
not  warrant  a  separate  training  room  must  be  flexible  enough  to 
provide  for  fluctuations  in  production  that  occur  in  the  ordinary 
factory,  as  the  production  schedule  has  the  right  of  way.  Certain 
machines  may  be  set  aside  or  "tagged"  for  breaking  in  new  help 
or  upgrading  those  already  employed. 

There  are  decided  disadvantages  in  training  on  the  j)i'oduction 
floor  among  the  larger  body  of  workers.     These  are : 
Discouragement  of  the  learner. 
Disorganization  of  routing  and  shop  control. 
Decreased  production. 
Larger  spoilage  of  product. 

Lack  of  opportunity  to  acquaint  worker  with  policies  of  the 
plant. 

When  placed  beside  a  speedy,  experienced  operator  the  new  em- 
ployee is  apt  to  become  discouraged  at  her  slowness  in  attaining 
equal  production.  Here  the  emphasis  is  on  production  and  the 
learner  whose  attention  should  be  focused  on  the  learning  process 
•will  have  it  diverted  by  the  speed  of  her  neighbor. 

The  new  operator  or  the  old  one  at  a  new  operation  is  sometimes 
discouraged  intentionally  by  statements  of  associates  that  she  can 
never  hope  for  a  fair  income  on  her  new  job.  This  is  a  frequent 
source  of  labor  turnover. 

Inexperienced  people  distributed  through  the  shop  retard  produc- 
tion, making  planning  and  scheduling  more  difficult.  The  produc- 
tion of  an  experienced  operator  is  diminished  for  every  beginner 
taught.  Spoilage  of  product  is  also  apt  to  be  large,  because  the 
learners  are  not  given  the  consideration  accorded  in  a  training  room, 
and  an  attempt  at  speed  before  correct  methods  have  been  acquired 
endangers  the  qualit}^  of  the  output.  Faulty  production  methods  are 
perpetuated. 

The  training  room,  or  "  tagged  "  machines,  should  be  near  to  the 
production  floor  so  that  work  can  be  readily  transferred.  It  should 
be  accessible  to  the  emploj-ment  department  from  which  it  receives 
the  learner,  and  as  quiet  as  possible  for  instruction  under  the  best 
physical  conditions.  Although  production  is  expected  of  the  train- 
ing department,  its  prime  object  is  to  train  workers,  and  therefore 
it  is  arranged  with  regard  to  instruction  rather  than  production.    Its 


84  TRADE   AXD  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATIO::^ 

equipment  sliould  be  in  prime  condition,  conducive  to  the  formation 
of  rio-ht  habits  of  work.  In  some  industries  the  department,  how- 
ever, forms  a  complete  production  unit,  the  stock  being  routed  on  the 
same  general  plan  as  in  the  factory.  The  director  is  responsible  for 
the  right  type  of  materials  to  work  on,  the  production  assigned  to 
her,  and  for  an  output  of  trained  workers.  Teachers  are  selected 
who  have  the  psychological  insight  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the 
operations  to  be  taught,  the  manufacturing  processes,  the  production 
schedule,  the  causes  for  the  shifting  of  workers,  and  the  causes  of 
low  production  and  of  waste.  Leadership,  ability  to  analyze  the  op- 
erations, and  to  instruct  according  to  the  best  method  are  essential  to 
her  success. 

The  number  of  learners  assigned  to  a  teacher  can  not  be  as  great 
as  the  number  of  workers  assigned  to  a  forewoman,  but  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  difficulties  of  the  operation  taught. 

Eecord  charts  of  the  progress  of  the  learner  should  indicate  her 
production  schedule  and  salvage  curve,  together  with  notations  of 
special  hindrances.  This  is  important  in  determining  when  her  train- 
ing is  complete  and  in  placing  and  upgrading  her. 

The  unorganized  method  of  training  women  which  prevails  at  the 
present  time  is  to  place  the  new  worker  among  experienced  workers. 
There  she  may  learn  what  the  older  workers  are  disposed  to  teach 
her.  Inasmuch  as  production  is  the  chief  duty  of  the  worker,  assist- 
ing her  neighbor  means  to  her  loss  of  time,  loss  of  production, 
and  the  training  of  a  possible  competitor,  thereby  diminishing  her 
chances  of  emploj'ment.  To  the  learner  it  means  spoiled  material, 
bad  working  habits,  lack  of  incentive,  discouragement,  and  shift  of 
employment.  If  left  to  her  own  devices,  the  chances  are  small  that 
she  will  hit  upon  the  one  best  v/ay  of  doing  the  task  assigned.  Ap- 
prenticeship systems  for  girls  in  plants  have  been  a  matter  of  time 
serving  rather  than  training. 

The  obligation  of  the  training  department  to  the  learner  is  to  bring 
her  in  the  shortest  possible  time  to  the  point  at  which  she  can  earn 
a  satisfactory  wage,  and  to  make  the  training  cost  her  as  little  as 
possible.  In  fulfilling  this  obligation  the  department  works  for  the 
mutual  benefit  of  the  plant  and  the  girl  worker. 

Not  much  progress  can  be  made  in  training  in  plants,  other  than 
those  which  are  large  enough  to  train  their  own  teachers  and  fore- 
women, until  competent  teacher  trainers  are  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  industrial  plants  as  a  public  educational  service.  Through  the 
provisions  of  the  Federal  vocational  act  this  service  is  organized  for 
the  assistance  of  industry  in  ever}^  State. 

Training  of  operatives  is  not  a  distinct  and  abstract  subject  which 
can  be  worked  out  along  general  lines  outside  the  industry.  Pro- 
grams for  training  necessitate  intimate  and  first-hand  knowledge  of 


rOK   GIRLS   AXD   W0ME2T.  85 

(lie  industry.     The  person  who  develops  such  a  program  must  s^^end 
much  time  studying : 

(a)  Processes. 

(b)  Working  conditions. 

(c)  Methods  of  production. 

(d)  Steps  in  advancement. 

(e)  Machines  and  their  requirements  of  the  worker. 

(f)  Technical  knowledge  required  to  set  up  and  run  the  ma- 

chine. 

(g)  Type  of  skill  required. 

(h)  Kind  of  supplementary  knowledge  or  training  Avliich  would 
increase  the  intelligence  and  consequently  the  capacity  of 
the  worker  for  advancement  and  higher  earnings. 

One  substantial  means  of  stimulating  and  promoting  vocational 
education  is  for  the  State  and  local  agencies  to  induce  plants  in- 
augurating systems  of  training  their  operatives  to  utilize  the  services 
of  State  and  local  directors  in  making  studies  to  determine  the 
training  possibilities  in  the  local  industries.  A  liberal  interpreta- 
tion of  that  section  of  the  Federal  vocational  act  dealing  with  part- 
time  education  makes  the  Federal  funds  available  for  instruction  of 
persons  who  are  definitely  scheduled  for  employment  or  under  formal 
agreement  to  be  employed,  fitting  them  for  advantageous  entrance 
into  a  trade  or  industrial  occupation,  providing  such  instruction  ex- 
tends over  a  period  of  144  hours'  duration  and  is  given  during  the 
regular  hours  of  the  working  day. 

Because  of  increasingly  important  influences  in  the  conduct  of 
business,  as  well  as  the  inevitable  changes  in  industrial  methods 
which  grow  out  of  new  inventions,  new  materials,  and  new  ideas  of 
management,  problems  of  industrial  education  can  be  solved  only 
by  searching  inquiry,  experiment,  and  constant  readjustment  to 
changing  conditions. 


ArPEXDIX    A. 

SYNOPSIS. 

A  detailed  synopsis  of  tlie  contents  of  tliis  bulletin  ii3  included  to  facilitate  its 
use  in  teaclier-trainiug  classes,  for  ready  reference,  for  assignment,  for  sum- 
maries, and  for  brief  reviews. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Attention  of  public  foeusetl  sliarply  on  women  wtige  earners. 

2.  Demand  for  constructive  educational  program  based  on  recognition  of  these 

facts. 

3.  Federal  vocational  act  admits  of  extension  of  same  opportunities  to  women 

as  those  outlined  for  men  in  Bulletins  17,  IS,  19,  Organization  and  Admin- 
istration of  Industrial  Schools,  and  other  publications  of  the  Trade  and 
Industrial  Series. 

Pakt  I.  Economic  and  Social  Aspects  ov  Vocational  Education  foe  Gikls 

A^■D  Women. 

I.  expansion  of  opportunittes  for  vocational  education  foe  gikls  and  women 

UNDER  THE  FEDERAL  VOCATIONAL  ACT. 

1.  Act  provides  educational  program  for  prospective  or  present  employment  by 

the  apportionment  of  Federal  funds  to  States  for — 
a.  The  making  of  studies  to  foster  the  same. 
h.  The  establishment  of  schools  or  C'las.ses. 

2.  Act  was  passed  when  war  demanded  of  women — ■ 

a.  Conservation—the  task  fell  on  home  maker. 

b.  Production — the  task  fell  on  wageworker. 

3.  Nece.-jsity  for  increased  production  of  war  essentials  resulted  in  redistribution 

of  workers  and  training — 

a.  For  workers.  ^ 

b.  For  supervisors  of  employment,  of  production. 

4.  Types  of  training  for  industrial  workers  recognized  at  present : 

a.  Technical — for  experts. 
h.  Supervisory— leaders. 

c.  Occupational— operatives. 

5.  Opportunities  for  technical   (preparatory)   limited;  opportunites  for  super- 

visory and  occupational  provided  for  employed  group,  however,  theoreti- 
cally available  to  all  workers,  women  and  men  alike. 

6.  All  three  forms  recognized  under  terms  of  Federal  vocational  act. 

II.    ECONOMIC  AND  SOCIAL  ASPECTS    OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION. 

1.  These  factors  have  at  times  accelerated  or  retarded  progress  which  evolves 
in  a  cycle. 
a.  Economic  stress  forces  women  workers  into  new  fields. 
h.  Society  accepts  their  presence  as  a  fact. 

c.  Private  enterprise  demonstrates  possibilities  of  training. 

d.  Public  agencies  assume  service. 

The  above  stages  mark  the  progress  of  both  commercial  and  industrial 
education. 

80 


roE  GIRLS  Ajs^d  wome:it.  87 

2.  Numerous  and  intricate  problems  of  .social  psychologj-  of  girl   worker  are 

educationally  conip'ex. 

a.  Conditions  whicli  environ  her  set  limitations. 

b.  Social  attitudes  make  lier  an  opportunist. 

c.  Public  underrates  industrial  employment  as  a  field  of  service  to  society. 

3.  Social  workers  and  economists  initiated  a  program  of  protective  legislation. 

a.  To  safeguard  present  interests  of  worker. 

(1)  Minimum  wage  had  economic  and  social  bearings  primarily. 
&.  To  safeguard  tlie  future  interests  of  society. 

(1)   Compulsoi'y  part-time  school  attendance  is  primarily  a  social  edu- 
cational problem. 

4.  Educators  and  sponsors  of  education  must  i-ecognize  the  social  and  economic 

factors  inlluencing  the  inauguration  and  operation  of  a  program  for  voca- 
tional education  for  girls  and  women. 

III.   rUNDAMENTAI,   UlSTINCTIONS   BETWEEN    HOME   JfAKlXG   AND   INDUSTP.IAL   EDUCA- 
TION. 

1.  Woman  has  always  been  a  factor  in  industrial  employment,  as  shown : 

a.  In  household  occupations  fast  becoming  isolated  from  the  home. 
&.  In  nonhousehold   occupations   resulting  from   use  of  mechanical   appli- 
ances. 

2.  Home   continues    the    consumption    of   commodities,    while   production    and 

service  become  isolated  and  organized. 
a.  Industry  becomes  organized  and  specialized,  employing  skilled  and  lui- 

skilled  workers  as  directors  and  operatives. 
ft.  Service  becomes  organized  and  specialized,  employing  professional  and 

semiprofessional  experts. 

c.  Public  utilities  and  common  commodities  become  organized  and  special- 

ized, employing  technical  operatives  and  commercial  workei*s. 

d.  Interdependence  and  interresponsibility. 

3.  Acknowledgment  of  differences  fundamental  to  training: 

a.  Analysis  of  homemaking,  a  composite  vocation. 

&.  Aim,  purpose,  and  method  of  training  based  on  preparation  for  diversi- 
fied function  of  the  home  maker. 

c.  Analysis  of  industrial  employment,  a  specialized  trade  or  group  of  re- 

lated  occupations. 

d.  Aim,  purpose,  and  method  of  training  based  on  intensive  preparation  for 

successful    entrance    to    employment,    progression,    and    advancement 
within  the  chosen  field. 

IV.    VOCATIONAL    EDUCATION    FOR    GIKLS    AND    -WOMEN    A    TWO-1  OLD    PKOIiUiM. 

1.  Groups  not  mutually  exclusive;  same  individual  a  member  of  both. 

2.  Needs  to  be  considered : 

a.  Vocational  home-umking  groups. 
6.  Trade  and  industrial  groups. 

3.  Realignment  of  social  attitudes  toward  productive  work  for  women. 

V.    WOMEN    IN    INDUSTRY    AN    INCREASINGLY    IMPORTANT    NATIONAL    PP.OBLEM — • 
ANALYSIS   AND   FORECAST. 

1.  Its  scope  is  indicated  by  ages  and  occupations  of  workers. 

2.  Their  employment  is  determined  by  youth,  domestic  relationship,  labor  mar- 

ket; is  regulated  by  organization,  social  legislation,  and  standardization  of 
conditions. 


88  TEADE  AND  INDUSTPtlAL  EDUCATION" 

3.  Their  occupations  are  chra-actcrized  by  the  decline  of  craft  trades  and  the 

rise  of  machine  industries. 

4.  Tlieir  presence  is  recognized;  their  continuance  is  dependent  upon  economic 

need,  industrial  expansion,  labor  shortage,  and  immigration;   their  place 
will  be  determined  by  their  preparation. 

5.  Tlie  educational  needs  of  girls  and  women  arising  fi-om  a  changing  order 

require  an  educational  program  providing  compulsory  general  education, 
civic,  and  vocational  education. 

Part  II.  Ways  and  Means  of  Establishing  and  Operating  a  Pkogkam  of 
Vocational  Education  for  Girls  and  Women. 

I.  fundamental  principles  of  federal  aid. 

1.  To  stimulate  the  undertaking  of  new  enterprises. 

2.  To  equalize  the  burden  of  maintenance  by  distribution  of  cost. 

3.  To  secure  uniformity,  efficiency,  and  economy  of  administration. 

4.  To  make  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  each  available  to  all. 

5.  The  Federal  vocational  act  is  an  application  of  the  foregoing  principles  to  a 

national  educational  program. 

II.  organization  for  administration  to  secure  the  benefits  of  appropriations. 

Sucli  organization  and  administration  involves : 

i.  Participation  of  the  Federal  Board^for  Vocational  Education,  representing 
the  National  Government. 

2.  Participation  of  tlie  State  board  representing  the  State. 

3.  Tlie  formulation  of  a  cooperative  agreement  or  contract  called  a  State 

plan. 

III.    FUNDS    available   FOR   DISTRIBUTION. 

These  funds  are  allotted  : 

1.  To  States— 

a.  For  agriculture  according  to  their  rural  population; 

b.  For  trade,  home  economics,  and  industry  according  to  their  urban 

population ;  and 

c.  For  teacher  training  according  to  their  total  population. 

2.  Within  States— 

a.  According  to  the  terms  of  the  act — 

(1)  Sec  11.  One-third  of  the  trade  and   industrial  fund,  if  es- 

pendetl,  must  be  for  workers  over  14  years  of  age  who  have 
entered  employment. 

(2)  Secs.  3-11.  Twenty  per  cent  of  the  trade  and  industrial  fund 

may  be  spent  for  home  economics. 

(3)  Sec.  11.  For  each  dollar  of  Federal  money  tlie  State  or  local 

community,  or  both,  shall  expend  an  equal  amount. 

(4)  Sec  12.  Not  more  than  GO  per  cent,  or  less  than  20  per  cent, 

shall  be  expended  for  the  preparation  of  teachers,  super- 
visors, or  directors  in  any  one  line;  agriculture,  trade  and 
industry,  or  home  economics. 
6.  According  to  rulings  of  the  board,  20  per  cent  of  the  annual  appro- 
priation for  training  of  teachers  in  any  one  line  may  be  used  for 
tbe  expense  of  supervision. 


FOR  GIRLS  A'KD  WOMEIT.  89 

IV.    GENERAL  ^^>O^^SIO^rS  OF  THE  VOCATIONAL  EOUCATION  ACT. 

1.  Assume : 

a.  That  vocational  choice  has  been  made  ))y  student. 

b.  Tliat  genertil  education  is  alivady  provided  for  by  the  State. 

c.  That  public  schools  are  controlled  and  supervised  by  the  State, 

d.  That    the    local    community    assumes    responsibility    for    initiating    the 
program. 

2.  Require: 

■  a.  That  classes  be  under  pul)lic  supervision  and  control. 

6.  That  the  controlling  puri)ose  is  to  fit  for  useful  employment. 

c.  That  instruction  shall  be  less  than  college  grade. 

d.  That  14  years  to  be  the  minimum  age  of  entrance  to  day  or  part  time 
classes;  IG  the  mininmra  age  of  entrance  to  evening  classes. 

c.  That  the  Fetleral  funds  be  matched  with  State  or  local  funds. 
f.  That  money  be  exiiended  only  for — 

(1)  Salaries  of  qualified  teachers,  and 

(2)  Maintenance  of  teacher-training  courses. 

V.    SPECIAL  PROVISIONS   EOK   TUADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL   EDITCATION. 

1.  Absolute  standards  indicated  iu  tiie  act: 

a.  In  all-day  schools — 

(1)  Minimum  age  of  entrance — 14  years. 

(2)  One-half  the  time  devoted  to  productive  work. 

(3)  Length  of  course — nine  months  per  year  (may  be  modified  in  towns 
under  25,000). 

(4)  Hours  of  instruction — 30  hours  per  week    (may  be   modified  iu 
towns  under  25,000). 

b.  In  part-time  schools — ■ 

(1)  Minimum  age  of  entrance — 14  years. 

(2)  Hours  of  instruction — 144  per  year. 

(3)  Subjects  to  enlarge  civic  or  vocational  intelligence. 

c.  In  evening  classes — 

(1)  Minimum  age — IG  years. 

(2)  Instruction  supplemental  to  daily  employment. 

2.  Discretionary  standards  indicated  in  the  State  plan : 
a.  Building  and  equipment  for  day,  part-time,  and  evening  classes — 

(1)  Must  be  adequate  for  instructional  purposes. 

(2)  Must  depend  upon  trades  taught. 

(3)  Must  insure  instruction  in  variety  of  standard  practices. 

(4)  Must   comply  with   State   laws   and   regulations   for   safety   and 
health  of  workers. 

(5)  Must  be  furnished  with  standard  supplies. 
h.  Minimum  for  maintenance  for  all-day,  part-time,  and  evening  schools 

indicated  in  the  State  plan — 

(1)  Must  be  adequate  to  fulfill  aims  of  the  .school. 

(2)  Must  cover  the  cost  of  upkeep,  replacement,  and  care  of  machinery. 

(3)  Must  cover  the  cost  of  selecting,  buying,  and  accounting  of  supplies. 

(4)  Must  recognize  but  not  depend  upon  the  money  returns  received 
from  a  salable  product. 

c.  Character  and  content  of  course  of  study— 

(1)  Must  be  determined  by  survey  of  local  industries  and  occupational 
analysis. 


I 


90  TRADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

2.  Discrctiouary  standards  indicatetl  in  the  State  plan— Continued. 

c.  Character  aud  content  of  course  of  study — Continued. 

(2)  Must  be  formulated  in  accordance  with  absolute  provisions  of  act 
lor  each  type  of  schools  or  classes — 

(a)  Day  trade  preparatory  couiscHi — One-lialf  the  day  in  shop  work 
on  a  pi'oductive  basis,  with  related  aud  nouvocational  sub- 
jects to  make  a  well-rounded  course. 

(h)  Part-time  instruction — any  subject  to  increase  the  civic  and 
vocational  intelligence — a  charter  for  educational  experi- 
ment, industrial  and  social  improvement. 

(c)  Evening  trade-extension  classes — any  subject  inherent  in  the 
trade  and  related  to  the  day's  employment — strictly  voca- 
tional instruction  for  advancement  of  worker  in  chosen 
occupation. 

d.  Methods   of   teaching    in    all-day,    part-time,    and    evening    schools    or 

classes — 
Day  schools — ■ 

(1)  Must  prepare  for  placement  in  occupations  at  completion  of 

course. 

(2)  Must  provide  series  of  concrete  experiences  arranged  in  pro- 

gressive instructional  order. 

(3)  Must  be  individual,  practical,  on  productive  basis. 

(4)  Economic  value  of  product  should  be  comparable  to  product 

of  shop  or  factory. 
Part-time  schools — 

(1)  Must  aim  to  reach  wide  variety  of  types  of  individuals  in 

groups. 

(2)  Must  be  unconventional,  vital,  interesting,  and  admit  of  per- 

sonal counsel. 

(3)  Must  develop  ability  for  self-directetl  effort. 
Evening  schools — 

(1)  Must  be  supplementary  to  day's  task. 

(2)  Must  yield  a  maximum  of  return  in  a  minimum  of  time. 

e.  Qualifications  of  teachers  in  diiy,  part-time,  and  evening  classes — 

(1)  Day  trade  classes — 

(a)  Shop  teachers  must  have  successful  trade  experience.  (Fed- 
eral Board  shares  cost  with  State.) 

(&)  Related  subjects  teachers  must  have  adequate  trade  contact. 
(Federal  Board  shares  cost  with  State.) 

(c)  Nouvocational  teachers — approved  only- when  minimum  re- 
quirement for  State  licenses  are  observed.  (Local  com- 
munity bears  cost.) 

(2)  Part-time  classes — 

(a)  Teachers  to  increase  civic  intelligence.     Must  have  personal 

qualifications  as  well  as  meet  local  requirements  for  grade 
school  teacliers. 

(b)  Teachers  to  increase  vocational  intelligence — 

1.  Teachers   of   trade-finding   classes   must   have   breadth    of 

occupational  experience  aud  personal  fitness  for  leader- 
ship of  group. 

2.  Trade  teacliers — must   have  qualifications   of   shop   or  re- 
lated subjects  teachers. 


I 


» 


FOR  GIRLS   AND  WOMEN.  91 

2.  Discretionary  standnrds  indicated  in  the  State  plan— Cdntinued. 

c.  Qualifications  of  teacliers  in  day,  part  time,  and  evening  classes — Contd. 
(3)   Evening  classes — 

(«)   Shop  teachers — sam'e  as  in  all  day  schools — preferably  en- 
gaged in  connnercial  pursuit  of  trade. 
(h)  Related    subjects    teachers    usually    require    more    technical 
knowledge  to  handle  mature  groups. 
/.  Teacher  training — 

(1)  Shop  teachers — • 

(a)  Requirements  for  entrance — • 

1.  Must  have  common-school  education. 

2.  Must  have  mastered  trade  content,  acquired  trade  skill. 

3.  Must  have  maturity  and  ability  to  grasp  instruction. 

4.  Must  have  general  qualifications  required  of  other  teachers. 
(h)  Length  of  course — • 

1.  Variously  approximated  at  from  14-1  to  2SS  hours. 

2.  Two-hour  periods  tv/ice  a  we<^k. 
(c)   Content  of  course— 

1.  Analysis  of  occupations. 

2.  The  lesson  plan. 

8.  The  course  of  study. 

4.  Class  organization  and  management. 

5.  Factory  training. 

6.  Principles  of  vocational  education. 

7.  Kinds  of  schools. 

8.  Genei'al  information. 
id)  Certification — 

1.  Attained  on  completion  of  course. 

2.  Provisional  certificate  pending  completion. 

(2)  Related  subjects  teachers — ■ 

(o)  Requirements  for  entrance — 1.  Must  conform  to  eutrance  re* 

quireraents  of  delegated  institution. 
(&)  Length  of  course — 1.  Four  years  or  equivalent. 

(c)  Content  of  course  (approximately)  — 

1.  50  per  cent  technical  and  related  subjects. 

2.  35  per  cent  academic  subjects. 

3.  15  per  cent  professional  subjects — chosen  from  following  list : 

Organization  and  administration  of  vocational  education ; 
history  of  vocational  schools ;  psychology  of  industrial  edu- 
cation ;  methods  for  industrial  education. 

(d)  Certification — same  as  required  by  State  for  regular  teachers. 

(3)  General  continuation  teachers — 
(a)   Requirem.ents  for  entrance — 

1.  Successful  experience  as  teacher. 

2.  Personal  aptitude  and  social  mindetlness. 
{!))  Length  of  course — • 

1.  Brief  introductoi'y  course. 

2.  Supplementary  short  courses  for  improvement  in  service, 
(c)   Content  of  course — 

1.  Analysis  of  group  to  be  reached. 

2.  Aim  and  purpose  of  school. 

3.  Organization  and  administration. 

4.  Methods  of  instruction. 

5.  Types  of  service  possible. 

6.  Programs. 


92  TRADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

2.  Discretionary  standards  indicated  in  tlie  State  plan— Continued. 
g.  Supervision — 

(1)  Responsibility  should  bo  fixed — 
(«)   For  educating  public. 

(l))   For  establishing  an  understanding  with  school  adnnnistrators, 
(c)   For  securing  cooperation  of  employers,  employees,  and  public 
schools. 

(2)  Duties  outlined  give  authority —  * 

(a)  To  determine  need  and  program. 

(b)  To  outline  teaching  material. 

(c)  To  assist  teachers  by  conferences  and  meetings, 

{(1)  To  supervise  and  inspect  and  report  on  school  applying  for  aid. 
(c)   To  prepare  material  for  publication. 

(3)  Qualifications— 

(«)   Two  years'  collegiate  training, 
(ft)   Two  years'  technical  training. 

(c)  Professional  training  and  teaching  experience. 

(d)  Sufficient  experience  and  contact  with  industrial  processes  to 

be  familiar  with  industrial   conditions   affecting  industrial 
education.  ^ 

li.  Suggested  steps  in  the  development  of  a  program  of  vocational  education. 

(1)  Local  school  superintendent  or  delegated  authority   responsible 

for  initiating  a  program. 

(2)  Cooperation  of  public  agencies  and  organizations  necessary  for 

its  sanction  and  support. 

(3)  Advisory  council,  composed  of  representatives  chosen  by  group 

organizations,  assists  in  determining  policies  and  programs. 

(4)  Industrial  survey  of  locality  permanent  and  continuous,  indicat- 

ing industrial  needs  and  educational  opportunities  to  meet  them. 

(5)  Classes  recruited  by  aggressive  publicity  and  personal  workers. 

(6)  Advisory  committee  chosen  for  each  trade  or  occupation  taught. 

(7)  Teachers     appointed,     courses     outlined,     and     special     training 

planned. 

(8)  Classes  organized,  attemlance  and  progress  recorded,  certification 

of  completion  of  course  issued. 

(9)  Iteimbursement  requested  from   State  board   for  work  done  ac- 

cording to  State  plans. 

(10)  Supervision  a  cooperative  affair — 

Local :  To  insure  a  program  adapted  to  community  needs. 

State :  To  assist  in  execution  of  work  in  accordance  with  State 

plans  and  recommend  to  State  board  for  approval. 
Federal:  To    assist    State    in    formulating    plans,    establishing 

classes,   inspecting   schools,   and   other   activities   necessai'y   to 

promote   the  A\'ork   in   State  in   accordance  with   the   Federal 

vocational  act. 

(11)  Ileimbursement  to   State  paid  in  quarterly  installments. 

VI.   TYPES   OF   VOCATIOKAL   SCHOOLS   AND   TRAIXING   AGENCIES. 

1.  The  establishment  of  a  program  for  vocational  education  in  any  community: 

a.  Presupposes  analysis  of  needs  of  groups  of  wage  earners. 

b.  Begins  where  need  is  imminent  and  public  attention  centered. 

c.  Commends,  though  can  not  subsidize,  forms  of  emergency  training  unless 

in  accord  with  terms  of  the  act. 


FOR  GIELS  AKD  WOMEN.  93 

Historical  development  indicative  of  local  interest  and  enterprise : 

a.  Day  classes  established   in  industrial  centers  provide  preemploynient 

training  for  young  wage  earners. 
&,  Evening  school  activities  of  a  social  and  general  nature  obscure  possi- 
bilities of  relating  instruction  to  day  employment  for  mature  workers. 
c.  Part-time  classes  offer  most  flexible  type  of  program  for  reaching  largest 
group  of  young  workers  over  14  years  of  age. 

EVENING   SCHOOLS  OR   CLASSES. 

Evening  school  classes  as  they  have  developed  for  working  women  serve  four 
important  fiuictions : 

a.  To  provide  social  and  recreatio  lal  activities. 

b.  To  provide  instruction  in  activities  for  home  use. 

c.  To  supplement  general  education. 

d.  To  provide  vocational  education — 

(1)  For  entrance  to  an  occupation, 

(2)  For  advancement  in  an  occupation. 

c.  Trade  extension  classes  only   (supplementary  to  the  day  employment) 
are  subject  to  Federal  subsidy. 
A  study  of  "  Working  girls  in  evening  schools  "  reveals  significant  facts  rela- 
tive to  industrial  education : 
a.  The  patrons  of  evening  schools  are  chiefly  wage  earners. 
h.  The  largest  numbers  are — 

(1)  American  born. 

(2)  Under  21  years  of  age. 

(3)  Attend  for  the  purpose  of  changing  to  a  better  job,  "learning  for 

home  use,"  "  obtaining  a  general  education." 
c.  Comparatively  few  desire  "  help  in  daily  occupation." 
Employers  and  employees  alike  must  be  convinced  that  the  school  can  render 
a  service  by — 

a.  Seeking  out  gi'oups  of  workers  with  similarity  of  experience. 

b.  Discovering  their  needs. 

c.  Organizing  classes  with  definite  aim. 

d.  Securing  teachers  who  can  give  a  maximum  of  expert  instruction  in  a 

minimum  of  time — 

(1)  In  fundamental  principles  of  trade. 

(2)  In  technique  of  trade. 

c.  Types   of  groups   analyzed — workers,   needs,   type   courses— 

(1)  Custom  sewing  trades. 

(2)  Hotel  or  restaurant  service. 

(3)  Other  occupations — 
(a)  Metal  trades. 

(&)  Woodworking  trades, 

(c)  Printing  trades. 

(d)  Forewomen,  supervisors,  and  instructors  in  plants. 
School  authorities  responsible  for  the  development  of  the  program  must: 

o.  Know  educational  possibilities  in  local  industries. 

b.  Find  what  occupations  are  represented  in  evening  school  enrollment. 

c.  Bring  workers  in  similar  employment  together  to  discover  facts  concern- 

ing their  work. 

d.  Study   their  educational  deficiencies  as  recognized  by   themselves  and 

their  employers. 
€.  Determine  what  supplementary  training  can  be  given. 


94  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

4.  Scbool  authorities  responsible  for  tlie  development  of  tlie  program  must^ 
Continued. 
f.  Provide  organization  for  instruction: 

(1)  Define  aim. 

(2)  Limit  registration. 

(3)  Provide  adequate  equipment. 

(4)  Secure  teacher. 

(5)  Enlist  support  of  advisory  committee. 

THE    ALL-DAY    SCnOOL. 

1.  Its  purpose  in  the  program  of  vocational  education  :  a.  Proomployment  train- 

ing to  enable  girl  to  nieet  industrial  conditions,  possess  a  marketable  skill, 
and  receive  higher  initial  wage. 

2.  Its  place  in  the  program  of  vocational  education. 

a.  An  institution  within  the  school  organization  affording  public  recogni- 

tion of  the  educational  needs  of  women  wage  earners. 

h.  An  administrative  center  coordinating  all  possible  opportunities  for  edu- 
cational service  relating  to  employment. 

c.  A  pioneer  and  experimental  instltut^iou  determining  what  can  be  done 
and  how  to  do  it. 

(1)  Opening  up  new  lines  of  employment. 

(2)  Cooperating  Avith  industry  to  secure  upgrading  of  jobs  and  train- 

ing to  meet  the  upgrading. 

(3)  Analyzing  tasks  and  setting  up  lines  of  progression. 

3.  Its  limitations : 

0.  Number  of  girls  prepared  for  entrance  to  wage  earning  negligible  in 

meeting  demands  of  labor  in  comnmnities  in  which  established. 
&.  Number  of  occupations  taught  within  the  school  likewise  limited. 

c.  Expansion  of  service  is  dependent  on  the  ability  to  establish  full  faith 

and  credit  with  employers  and  with  workers. 

d,  Psychologj'  of  girl  influenced  by — 

(1)  Popular  belief  that  wage  earning  is  temporary. 

(2)  Associations  in  choice  of  school,  clothes,  friends,  etc. 

(3)  Immediate  returns  rather  than  deferred  values. 

(4)  Dread  of  change  and  shift. 

4.  Its  organization  may  admit  of  two  types: 

G.  As  a  separate  school — 

(1)  Coordinate  in  rank  with  secondary  schools. 

(2)  With  director  and  staff  of  teachers. 

b.  As  a  separate  department  in  a  high  school — 

(1)  With  director,  course  of  study  and  staff  of  vocational  teachers. 

(2)  Teachers  of  related  and  academic  subjects  under  direction  of 

regular  school. 

c.  Objections  raised  to  each — 

(1)  The  organization  of  all-day  schools — 

(rt )   Uneconomical — duplication  of  administrative  machinery. 

(6)   Undemocratic— segregation  of  pupils  as  to  aim. 

(c)   LTnnecessary — duplicates     type     of    instruction     which 

should  be  given  in  regular  curriculum. 

(2)  The  separate  department — 

(«)   Unlikeness  of  aims. 
(h)  Shop  atmosphere,  methods  and  conditions  irreconcilable 

Avith  extra  curriculum  activities  and  interruptions  of 

regular  work. 


FOR   GIRLS  AXD   WOMEX.  95 

4,  Its  organization  may  atlmit  of  two  types — Continued. 

c.  Objections  raised  to  each — Continued. 

(2)  The  separate  department— Continued. 

(c)  Difficult  to  organize  mixed  teaching  force  into  unified 

body. 
((Z>  Diflk'ult  to  maintain  public  recognition  of  its  integrity 

in  industrial  world, 
(c)  Apt  to  be  satisfied  with  vocational  motive,  with  cultural 
aim. 

5.  Its  program  must  provide  opportunities : 

a.  For  preemploymcnt  training. 

h.  For  conducting  continuation  classes  for  .iuvenile  workers  employed  in  the 
trades  taught. 

c.  For  placement  of  workers  in  progres.sive  levels  of  employmiMit  alternating 

with  instructional  periotls. 

d.  For  short  units  of  instruction  for  mature  workers  in  latest  practices  of 

trade. 
,0.  Fundamental  characteristics  of  occupation  for  which  training  is  offered' 
a.  Must  have  teachable  content. 
6.  Must  not  be  highly  seasonal. 

c.  Must  offer  worker  benefit  for  increase  of  sldll  cr  knowledge. 

d.  Must  be  potentially  able  to  absorb  a  considerable  niuuber  of  workers. 

7.  Course  of  study  meeting  the  requirements  of  the  act  must  provide  for : 

a.  30  hours'  instruction  per  week. 
V.  9  months'  session  per  year. 

c.  At  least  one-half  the  time  spent  on  shopwork  as  a  useful  and  productive 

basis. 

d.  A  balance  of  subjects  to  insure  a  well-rounded  course — 

(1)  Shop  subjects:  Listed  alphabetically. 

(2)  Related  subjects:  Industrial  economics. 

(3)  Academic  or  nonvocational  subjects:  Drawing,  mathematics,  sci- 

ence, English,  civics,  industrial  history,  commercial  geography, 
physical  training. 

(4)  Type  schedule  of  subjects  and  hours. 

(5)  Type  courses :  Po\\er  machine  operating,  telegraphy,  drafting. 

8.  Its  benefits  to  the  girl : 

a.  Awakening  of  industrial  consciousness. 

h.  Realization  of  potentialities  as  producer. 

c.  Right  attitude  toward  work  and  the  results  of  labor. 

9.  Its  present  .status: 

a.  Development  under  treniendous  handicaps. 

6.  An  integral  part  of  at  least  20  public-school  systems. 

PART-TIME    .SCHOOLS    AXD    CLASSES. 

The  field  of  part-time  education. 

1.  Education  of  young  workers  through  part-time  schools  or  classes  a  national 

need,  shown : 
a.  By  the  distribution  of  the  total  school  enrollment. 
h.  By  out-of-school  age  groups  of  workers. 

2.  A  social  economic  and  educational  measui"e: 

a.  Arising  from  results  of  present-day  industrial  development. 
6.  Safeguarding  youth  in  transition  from  school  to  work  or  from  juvenile 
to  adult  employment.  i 


96  TEADE  AND  IXDUSTR^y:.  EDUCATIOiT 

2.  A  social  economic  antl  educational  measure — Continued. 

c.  Conserving  and  developing  potentialities  for  citizen  and  worker  at  ma- 

turity. 

d.  Extending  school  program  to  include  service  of  health,  guidance,  place- 

ment, follow-up,  as  well  as  instruction. 

e.  Requiring  cooperation  of  parents,  employees,  employers,  and  all  organ- 

ized agencies  for  conserving  youth. 

3.  The  most  flexible  measure  of  the  Federal  act  permits : 

a.  Any  program  of  instruction  "  to  enlarge  civic  or  vocational  intelligence 
of  workers  over  14  years  of  age." 

6.  Specific  vocational  program  when  over  50  per  cent  of  work  is  devoted 
to  instruction  in  trade,  home  economics,  industry,  commercial,  or  other 
occupational  subjects. 
5.  Present  status  of  part-time  program  in  the  United  States : 

a.  Nineteen  States  have  passed  compulsory  part-time  school  attendance 
laws  adapted  to  the  terms  of  their  child-labor  laws,  compulsory  school- 
attendance  laws,  and  educational  laws. 

6.  States  are  providing  for  selection  and  training  of  teachers  for  new  types 
of  service — 

(1)  Social  and  educational  qualifications  factor  in  choice. 

(2)  Short  period  of  initial  training  develops  viewpoint. 

(3)  Recurrent  periods  of  conference  and  discussion  required  to  meet 

problems  as  they  arise. 

(4)  Courses,  methods,  and  program  modified  by  conditions  at  variance 

with  regular  day  school. 

c.  States  are  assisting  local  communities  in  planning  the  details  of  organi- 

zation and  programs;  examples  of  suggested  type  schedules  of  sub- 
jects and  hours  of  instruction  from — • 

(1)  Michigan. 

(2)  Pennsylvania. 

(3)  New  York. 

(4)  Textile  industry  of  South. 

(5)  Boston. 

(6)  California. 

d.  Local  communities  responsible  for  ixltimate  adjustment  and  success  of 

program. 

The  girl,  the  jol),  and  the  part-time  school. 

1.  Educators  recognize  child's  right  to  part-time  instruction : 

a.  Girl's  neetls  overlooked  by  effort  to  meet  problems  of  boj\ 
6.  Girl's  program  temporarily  adjusted  to  a  universal  home-making  pro- 
gram, 
c.  Girls  as  seriously  handicapped  as  boys  by  lack  of  training  for  a  job. 

2.  Girl's  mental  state  affects  her  attitude  toward  school  and  work : 

a.  Influenced  by  fallacious  belief  in  biief  period  of  employment. 
&.  Influenced  by  friends  in  choice  of  employment,  school,  clothes,  and  the 
like. 

c.  Influenced  by  home  conditions,  desire  to  help,  etc.     Boy  is  influenced  by 

attitudes  toward  school,  dislike  of  program,  preference  for  work. 

d.  Opportunities  for  vocational  training  must  be  accessible  and  urged. 

e.  More   regular  in   attendance  at  school   than  boys;   voluntarily  out  of 

work  less. 


FOR  GIKLS   AXD  WOME^^  97 

Girl's  mental  state  affects  lier  attitude  toward  .school  and  work — Continued. 

f.  Girls'  need  for  strong  personal  influences,  leadei'ship,   social  activities, 
informal  guidance  and  counsel,  as  well  as  instruction,  must  be  met  in 
continuation  school. 
Three  groups  of  girls — characterized  by  more  or  less  interchanging: 

0.  Girls  who  leave  public  school  for  short  vocational  course  in  expectation 
of  quick  placement  in  a  job — (1)  Need  follow-up  by  organized  agencies 
of  continuation  school  to  see  that  obligations  are  met. 

J).  Girls  who  remain  at  home  to  help  bear  family  responsibilities  for  a 
shorter  or  longer  period  of  time — (1)  Need  home  economics  supple- 
mented by  a  knowledge  of  the  economics  of  wage-earning  and  informa- 
tion concerning  opportunities  for  employment. 

c.  Girls  who  go  to  work:  Facts  fundamental  to  analysis  of  problem  of 
their  needs  should  be  obtained  from  school,  home,  and  employment, 
including — ■ 

(1)  Age  and  grade  of  drop-outs. 

(2)  School  or  department  last  attended. 

(3)  lieasons   for   withdrawal:    Given    by   girl   at   school;    given    by 

parent  when  daughter  applies  for  a  work  permit. 

(4)  Attitude  toward  schooling. 

(5)  Choice  of  work  or  further  training. 
(G)   Physical  condition. 

(7)  Home  responsibilities. 
(S)  Family  conditions;  cause  and  remedies. 

(9)   Kinds   of   occupations   at   which   employed:    Carrying,   delivery, 
merchandise,  mechanical,  clerical,  domestic,  miscellaneous. 

(10)  Wage:  Initial,  transition  from  school  to  work;  at  end  of  minority, 

transition  from  juvenile  to  adult  employment. 

(11)  Economic  status:  Indicated  by  expenditures,  cost  of  maintenance, 

saving,  spending  for  clothes,  food,  recreation. 
Information  concerning  employing  establishments  desirable  for  continuation- 
school,  program  of  instruction,  guidance,  and  placement: 
a.  Number  of  workei'S. 

&.  Positions  in  firm — duties,  requirements,  and  wages, 
c.  Selection   of  workers — sources   of  help,   method   of  selection,   placing, 

releasing. 
(7.  Organization  for  promotion  and  advancement. 
e.  Conditions  of  employment. 
A  rough  survey  of  girls  between  the  ages  of  14  and  20  years  indicates: 
fl.  That  of  the  out-of-school  age  group  between  14  and  15,  81  i>er  cent  are 

employed  and  19  per  cent  are  at  home. 
h.  That  of  the  out-of-school  age  group  between  16  and  20,  54  per  cent  are 
gainfully  employed  and  40  per  cent  are  at  home. 

c.  That  one-third  of  the  enrollment  in  public  and  private  high  schools  in  in 

practical  courses. 

d.  That  girls  predominate  in  these  courses  to  the  degree  to  which  they  out- 

number boys  in  commercial  courses. 

Specialized  instruction  in  part-time  classes. 

Variations  in  part-time  classes  must  conform  to  minimum  standards  of  the 
act: 

a.  Must  be  under  public  supervision  and  control. 

b.  Must  require  14  years  as  minimum  age  of  entrance. 
10787*— 20 7 


98  TRADE  a:nd  industrial  educatioh 

1.  Variations  in  part-time  classes,  etc. — Continued. 

c.  Must  offer  iustruction  desigued  to  increase  civic  or  vocational  intelligence. 

d.  Must  provide  144  hours  instruction  per  year. 

2.  Types  of  part-time  classes  indicative  of  possible  development : 

a.  General  continuation  schools  in  textile  industries ;  a  "  two-shift "  plan  of 
"  paired  workers  "  provides  5  hours  in  plant,  3  hours  in  school  daily. 

1).  Trade  preparatory  class  in  general  continuation  schools ;  plant  and  equip- 
ment loaned  for  instruction ;  teacher  and  factory  forewom-an  tempo- 
rarily employed  by  public  school. 

c.  Trade  preparatory  class  for  workers  employed  or  under  agreement  for 
employment  in  plant ;  continuous  instruction  for  learner  until  trans- 
ferred to  production. 

(?.  Cooperative  part-time  classes  for  "  in-and-out'*  groups;  alternation  of  in- 
struction with  employment  for  at  least  50  per  cent  of  total  time. 

c.  •'  Dull  season  "  or  "  shut-down  "  classes  for  operatives;  to  learn  new  ma- 
chines or  procasses. 
f.  Trade  extension  classes  for  supervisors ;  instruction  relative  to  produc- 
tion factors ;  may  be  classified  as  evening  or  part-time. 

g.  Trade  extension  classes  in  chemistry  and  dietetics  for  nurses  in  training 
departments  in  local  hospitals;  may  be  classified  as  evening  or  part- 
time. 

TRAINING    IN    IXDUSTniAL    ri^\NTS. 

1.  Largest  group  of  women  workers  in  lesser  skilled  industries  can  only  be 

benefited  by  an  educational  program  which  reaches  them  at  their  job : 
a.  It   is  acknowledged  that  industry,  the  worker,  and  the   State  would 

benefit  from  the  training. 
6.  It  is  undetermined  what  part  of  the  cost  industry  should  bear  and  what 

service  the  public  should  render. 

2.  Training  in  plants  has  heretofore  been  largely  unorganized  and  incidental : 

a.  Apprenticeship  training  is  confined  to  selected  group  in  few  industries. 

h.  Some  form  of  training  has  been  necessary  to  replace  constant  loss  of 
workers. 

c.  Experimental  emergency  training  was  inaugurated  in  war-essential 
industries  to  meet  production  demands  with  constantly  decreasing  sup- 
ply of  skilled  labor  and  increasing  numbers  of  wom^i  workers. 

3.  Continuance  of  women  in  these  employments  has  resulted  in : 

a.  Realignment  of  tasks. 
6.  Use  of  automatic  devices. 

c.  Betterment  of  conditions  for  workers. 

d.  Introduction  of  women  executives  in  employment  departments. 

e.  Establishment  of  training  departments. 

4.  Two  types  of  organization  of  tjfaiuing  departments: 

o.  Separate  training  room. 

h.  Training  on  production  floor. 

5.  Functions  of  training  department  are  to  obtain,  train,  transfer,  and  follow- 

up  workers : 
a.  New  worker  received  from  employment  department  taught. 
h.  Good  worker  upgraded  for  promotion. 

c.  Poor  worker  brought  to  standard. 

d.  Applicants  tested  out  for  jobs  to  discover  abilities  and  disabilities. 

e.  New  machines,  tools,  and  methods  of  work  tried  out. 


FOE   GIRLS  AND   WOMEN.  99 

Factors  to  be  considorod  in  establi.shmont  of  training  department i 
a.  Location  in  plant. 
I).  Equipment. 

c.  Teachers. 

d.  Supply  of  variety  of  materials  and  processes. 

e.  Production  subordinate  to  instruction. 

f.  Records  showing  atteiulance,  production,  and  salvage. 
Disadvantages  of  unorganized  training: 

a.  Loss  of  time. 
h.  Spoiled  material. 

c.  Bad  working  habits. 

d.  Lack  of  incentive. 

c.  Discouragement  and  labor  turnover. 

f.  Lack  of  opportunity  to  acquaint  worker  with  policies  of  plant. 
Development  of  program  for  training  operatives,  forewomen,  or  supervisors 

necessitates  an  intimate  first-hand  knowledge  of  industry  including; 
0.  Processes. 
h.  Working  conditions. 
c.  Methods  of  production. 
(T.  Steps  in  advancement. 

c.  INIachines  and  their  requirements  of  the  worker. 
f.   Technical  knowledge  required  to  set  up  and  run  machines, 
r/.  Type  of  skill  required. 

/(.  Kind  of  supplementary  training  which  would  increase  the  intelligence  or 
efficiency  of  the  worker. 
Service  may  be  rendered  industrial  plants  by  the  organization  of  classes 

imder  public  supervision  and  control  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 

Federal  act : 

a.  In  training  skilled  workers  for  teaching  in  plants  according  to  provisions 

for  teacher-training  classes. 

b.  In  holding  instructional  conferences  for  groups  of  forewomen  as  provided 

for  in  trade-extension  classes. 

c.  In  training  workers  who  are  employed  or  wider  agreement  for  employ- 

luent  in  accordance  with  the  ruling  for  part-time  classes. 

d.  In  making  studies  of  industries  necessary  to  keep  in  touch  with  their 

constantly  changing  problems. 


Appendix  B. 

CLASSIFIED  BIBLIOGRAPHY — WOMEN  IN  INDUSTRY. 

1.  General. 

2.  Specific  Industry  or  Occupation. 

3.  Education  and  Training. 

4.  Economic. 

5.  Social. 

G.  Bibliograpliics. 

1.  Genkral. 

Character  and  Temperament,  J.  Jastrow.     Appleton,  1915. 

The  Creative  Impulse  in  Industry,  Helen  Marot.    Button  &  Co.,  1918. 

The  New  Position  of  Women  in  American  Industry.     Women's  Bureau,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Labor.    In  press,  1920. 
Fatigue  and  EfRciency,  Josephine  C.  Goldmark.     Survey  Associates,  1912. 
An  Industrial  Note  Boole,  Esteile  T.  Weeks.     Research  Section,  Industrial  Com- 
mittee, War  Work  Council.     National  Board,  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  1919-20. 
The  Possibilities  and  Limitations  of  the  Employment  of  Women  in  Industry, 

Bulletin  No.  1,  Vol.  Y,   Series  of  1918,  Dr.  Alice  Hamilton.     Pennsylvania 

Department  of  Labor  and  Industry. 
The  Problem  of  Selecting  the  Right  .lob,  National  Association  of  Corporation 

Schools.     Bulletin,  June  9,  1915. 
Sex  Differences  in  IMental  Traits.     Psychological  Bulletin.  October,  1914. 
Selected  Articles  on  the  Employment  of  Women,  Edna  D.  Bullock.     H.  W.  Wilson 

Co.,  1914. 
Standards  for  the  Employment  of  Women  in   Industry.     Women   in   Industry 

Service,  Department  of  Labor,  1919. 
Wage  Earning  Women,  Annie  M.  McClean.     Slacmillan,  1910. 
The  War  and  the  Women's  Point  of  Viev>'.     Rhoda  McCulloch,  1919. 
Women  in  Industry,  Alexander  Hamilton  Institute.     New  York  City,  191S. 
Women  in  Industry,  Edith  Abbott.     Aippletou  &  Co.,  1910. 

2.  IxDrsTr.Y  on  Occt^'PATion. 

Artificial  Flower  Makers,  Mary  V:ui  Kleeck.  Russell  Sage  Foinidation  Survey 
Association,  1913. 

Boot  and  Shoe  Industry  as  a  Vocation  for  V\'omen,  ilay  Allinson  (Women's  Edu- 
cational and  Industrial  Union,  Boston).  Bulletin  No.  ISO,  LT.  S  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics,  1915. 

Dressmaking  as  a  Trade  for  Women,  May  Allinson.  Bulletin  No.  193,  U.  S. 
Bui-eau  of  Labor  Statistics,  September,  1916. 

Garment  Making  Industries,  Cleo  Murtlaud.  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
1917. 

Industrial  Home  Work  in  Massachusetts,  Amy  Hewes.     Bulletin  No.  101,  IMassa- 
chusetts  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1914. 
100 


I 


FOR  GIELS  AND  WOMEN.  101 

Millinery  as  a  Trade  for  Women,  L.  Terry.  Longmans,  CJreeu  &  Co.,  Now  Yorlc, 
1916. 

Occupations — Women  in  Department  Stores,  Iris  Prouty  O'Leary.  Clevelanil 
Survey,  lUissell  Sage  Foundation,     191G, 

Occupations — Women  in  Dressmaking  and  Rlillinery,  Women  in  Garment  Trades, 
Edna  Bryner.    Cleveland  Survey,  Kussell  Sage  Foundation.     1910. 

Professional  Women  Workers,  Elizabeth  Kemper  Adams.  Harcourt,  Biace  & 
Howe.     (In  press.) 

A  Seasonal  Industry  (Millinery) — A  study  of  the  Millinery  Trade  in  New  York 
City,  Mary  Van  Kleeck.  Russell  Sage  Foundation  Survey  Association,  In- 
corporated.    1917. 

Twenty-one  Occupational  Leaflets.  The  Bureau  of  Occupations  for  Trained 
Women,  1302  Spruce  Street,  Philadelphia,  191G. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  for  U.  S.  Employment  Service  and  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics,  Descriptions  of  Occupations.     Series  1918. 

U.  S.  Railroad  Administration  Division  of  Labor — Annual  Report  1918,  Women's 
Service  Section,  p.  16 ;  Annual  Report  1919,  Women's  Service  Section,  p.  59 ; 
Number  of  Women  Employed  and  Character  of  Their  Employment,  in  tabular 
form. 

Vocations  for  Girls,  Mary  A.  LaSalle  and  Katherine  E.  Wiley.  Houghton  Mifllin 
&  Co.,  1913. 

Vocations  for  Trained  Women,  E.  Martin.  Longmans,  Green  «S:  Co.,  New  York, 
1914. 

Vocations  for  Trained  Women  (Opportunities  other  than  teaching).  Occupational 
Series.     Women's  Educational  &  Industrial  Union,  Boston,  1912. 

Vocational  Opportunities  in  the  Industries  of  Ontario :  No.  1,  General  Introduc- 
tion ;  No.  2,  Department  and  Notion  Stores  ;  No.  3,  Dressmaking  and  IMilliuery  ; 
No.  4,  Garment  Making.    Ontario  Department  of  Labor.    1920. 

Wages  of  Candy  Makers  in  Philadelphia.  Women's  Bureau,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Labor  (No.  4).     1919. 

A^'ar  Time  Employment  of  Women  in  the  Metal  Trades.  Research  Report  No. 
8,  National  Industrial  Conference  Board,  15  Beacon  Street,  Boston,  1918. 

War  Work  for  Women  (occupations  open  to  women  through  civil-service  regu- 
lations). Information  Department  of  the  Women's  Committee  of  the  Council 
of  National  Defense,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  August  1, 
1918. 

Women  in  Banking  in  the  City  of  Minneapolis.  Women's  Occupational  Bureau, 
204  Transportation  Building,  Minneapolis,  1919. 

Women  in  Government  Service.  Bulletin  Women's  Bureau,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Labor  (No.  3),  1920. 

Women  in  the  Bookbinding  Trade,  Mary  Van  Kleeck.  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
1913. 

Women  in  War  Industries  Series  No.  1.  The  Manufacture  of  Army  Shirts  under 
the  Home  Work  System,  JefCersonville,  Ind. ;  No.  2.  Making  the  Uniforms  for 
our  Navy;  No.  3.  The  Employment  of  Women  in  the  Charleston  Navy  Yard 
Factories;  No.  4.  Women  Workers  in  the  Philadelphia  Naval  Aircraft  Fac- 
tory. Committee  on  Women  in  Industry  of  the  Advisory  Commission  of  the 
Council  of  National  Defense,  1917-18, 

Women  Workers  in  Factories,  Anette  Mann,  Consumers'  League  of  Cincinnati, 
1918, 

Women's  Work  in  War  Times,  Operations  at  which  women  are  engaged  in 
20  industries.  Textile  Department,  The  Merchants  National  Bank,  28  State 
Street,  Boston,  1917. 


102  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

3.  Education  and  Training. 

Educational  Psycliologj^     E-  L-  Thorndike.     Part  III,  1914. 
]']ini)loynient  Psychology  Link.     Macmillan,  1919. 

Establishment  and  Organization  of  the  Trade  School  for  Girls,  Report  of  the 
work  of  the  school  for  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1918.     Board  of  Public  Educa- 
tion, School  District  of  Philadelphia. 
Evening  School  Courses  for  Girls  and  Women.     Bulletin  23,  National  Society 

for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education.     1917. 
Commercial  Work  and  Training  for  Girls.     Macmillan  &  Co.     1915. 
Industrial  Education.     Report  of  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor.     Senate  Document  936,  second  session,  Sixty- 
second  Congress,  1912. 
Industrial   Education.    Twenly-fifth   Annual   Report   of  the   Commissioner  of 

Labor,  1910. 
Industrial  Experience  of  Trade-School  Girls,  May  Allinson.     Bulletin  No.  215, 

U.  S.  Bureau  Labor  Statistics,  1917. 
Industrial  Histoi-y  of  the  U.  S.,  Katherine  Coraan.    Macmillan,  1910. 
Industrial  Training  for  Women,  Florence  Marshall.    National  Society  for  the 

Promotion  of  Industrial  Training,  1907. 
Money  Value  of  an  Education,  No.  22.     Bureau  of  Education,  1917. 
Industrial  Opportunities  and  Training  for  Women,   Women's  Bureau.     U.   S. 

Department  of  Labor  (in  preparation)  1920. 
The  Making  of  a  Trade  School,  Mary  S.  Woolman.     Whitcomb  and  Barrows. 

1910. 
The  Young  Wage  Earner.    Anna  Y.  Reed.    Macmillan.    1920. 
Opportunities   for   Vocational  Training  in  Cincinnati  for  Women   and   Girls. 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae,  Ohio  Valley  Branch.     Schmidlapp  Bureau, 
Cincinnati,  O.     1917. 
Preparing  Girls  for  Trade.s — Report  of  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls.     De- 
partment of  Education,  New  York  City,  1914-15. 
The   Public   Schools  and  V/omen  in  Office  Service,  Department  of  Research, 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  May  Allinson.     Boston,  1914. 
Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,  Meyer  Bloomfield.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1915. 
Courses  Under  Union  Auspices.     Report  of  committee  appointed  by  Executive 
Council  American  Federation  of  Labor.     Report  of  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Thirty-ninth  Annual  Convention,  1919  (pp.  135-144), 
A  Study  of  the  Dress  and  Waist  Industry  for  the  Purposes  of  Industrial  Educa- 
tion, C!eo  ]Murtlaud,  with  the  collaboration  of  C.  A.  Prosser.     U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics,  Appendix  1.  Bulletin  145,  1914. 
A  Trade  School  for  Girls :  A  Preliminary  Investigation  in  a  Typical  Manufactur- 
ing City.     United  States  Bureau  of  Education.     Worcester,  Mass.     Bulletin 
No.  17,  1913. 
Trade  Union   Colleges.     Report  of  American   Federation   of  Labor  Executive 

Council,  1919. 
United  States  Training  Service — Training  bulletins  No.  1-20.     Industrial  train- 
ing in  representative  American  industries  employing  v.'omen  with  occupational 
descriptions,  outline  courses,  and  bibliographies.     U.  S.  Department  of  Labor, 
191S. 
Vocational  Education — A  Compilation,  Emily  Robison.    H.  W.  Wilson  Co.    1917. 
Vocational  Education  for  Girls  and  Women.     Leake.     Macmillan.    1918. 
Vocational  Guidance  in  the  Public  School.    W.  Carson  Ryan.     Bulletin  No.  24, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  191S. 


IBVoeational  Guiilauce  in  Secondary  Education.  Report  of  Committee  on  Ke- 
orgauizution  of  Secondary  Education  Appointed  by  tlie  N.  E.  A.  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  EducatiO}),  Bulletin  No.  19,  1918. 

Vocational  Guidance  Movement.    Jolin  M.  Biewer.    IVIacmillan.    191S. 

Vocational  Psycliology,  witli  a  chapter  on  Vocational  Aptitude  of  Women.  H.  L. 
Hollingsworth.    Appleton.    1916. 

.Wage  Worth  of  School  Training  (An  Analytical  Study  of  Six  Hundred  W^omen 
Workers  in  Textile  Factories),  Anna  Hedges  (Talbot).  Teachers  College,  Bu- 
reau of  Publications  No.  70,  1915. 

Work  of  School  Cliildren  out  of  School  Hours,  No.  32.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, 1917. 

Working  Girls  in  Evening  Schools,  Mary  Van  Kleeck.  Ruf^sell  Sage  Founda- 
tion, 1914. 

4.  Economic. 

Grants  in  Aid,  Sidney  Weljb.    Longmans  Green.    1911. 

History  of  Labor  in  the  United  States,  John  R.  Commons.    Macmillan.    1918. 

Industrial  Democracy,  Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb.  Longman  &  Co.,  London. 
1897. 

Industrial  Good  Will,  John  R.  Commons.    McGraw  Hill  Co.     1919, 

Instincts  in  Industry,  Ordway  Lead.     Houghton  Mifllin.     1918. 

.The  Industrial  Replacement  of  Men  by  Women  in  the  State  of  New  York.  Pre- 
pared by  the  Bureau  of  Won)en  in  Industry.  State  of  New  York.  Department 
of  Labor,  1919. 

iabor  Problems  and  Labor  Legislation,  John  B.  Andrews.  Am.  Assn.  Labor 
Legislation,  1919. 

Legal  Recognition  of  Industrial  Women,  Ellen  L.  Lattimore,  Ph.  D.,  and  Ray  S. 
Trent,  B.  D.  Issued  by  the  Industrial  Committee.  War  Work  Council  of 
the  National  Board  of  Y'oung  Women's  Christian  Associations,  1918. 

Man  to  Man — A  Story  of  Industrial  Democracy,  John  Leitch.     1919. 

Minimum  Wage  Connnission's  Current  Facts,  Mary  W.  Dewson.  National  Con- 
sumers League,  44  East  23(1  Street,  New  York  City,  Januarj^  1920. 

National  Industrial  Conference  Board.  Research  Reports  on  Industrial  Or- 
ganization, administration  problems  of  production,  employment,  and  well- 
being  of  workers,  Series  1.     Boston,  Mass.     1917. 

Probable  Economic  Future  of  American  Women,  David  Snoddeu.  American 
Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  XXIV,  No.  5,  March,  1919. 

Problems  of  Industrial  Women.  War  Work  Council,  National  Board,  l''oung 
Women's  Christian  Associations  of  the  United  Stales  of  America,  600  Lex- 
ington Avenue,  New  York  City.     1918. 

A  Short  History  of  the  American  Labor  IMovement,  IMary  Beard.  Harcourt, 
Brace  &  Howe.     1920. 

Standards  Governing  Employment  of  Women  in  Industry,  Women  in  Industry 
Service,  L^^.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  1918. 

The  Trade  Union  Woman,  Alice  Henry.     Appleton.     1915. 

Trade  Unionism,  Robt.  F.  Hoxie.     Appleton.     1917. 

5.  Social. 

The   Family   as   a    Social    a\ui   Educational    Institution,    '\Mllystine   Goodsell. 

Macmillan.     1919. 
The  Girl  and  Her  Job,  Helen  Hoerle  and  Florence   Saltzburg.     Henry  Holt. 

1919. 
Italian  Women  in  Industry,  LoiiLse  Odencranz.     Russell  Sage  Foundation,  191S, 


104      TEADE  AND  INDUSTRIiU.  EDUCATION  FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN. 

Modern  Industry  in  Relation  to  tlie  Family,  Health,  Education,  and  Morality, 

Florence  Kelley.    Longmans  Green,  N.  Y.,  1914. 
Mothers  Who  Mu.st  Earn,  Katherine  Anthony.    Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1914. 
New  Day  for  the  Colored  Women  Workers.     Consumers'  League,  New  York 

City,  March,  1919. 
(A  Study  of  Colored  Women  in  Industrial  Employment.    Consumers'  League, 

Y.  W.  C.  A.,  Women's  Trade  Union  League,  New  York  Urban  League,  Div. 

of  Ind.  Studies,  R.  S.  F.) 
I'rublems  of  Child  AVelfare,  Chap.  IV.     Industrial  Education,  Mangold.     Mac- 

millan,  1914. 
Young  Working  Girls,  Woods  and  Kennedy.    Houghton  Mifflin,  1913. 
Woman  and  Social  Progress,  Scott  Nearing  and  Nellie  M.  S.  Nearing.     Mac- 

millan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1912. 
Women  Workers  and  Society,  Annie  M.  I\IcLean.    McClurg,  1917-18. 

G.    BiDLIOGltAPHIES. 

Bibliography,  AYomen  in  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  46,  pp.  58-60.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, 1939. 

A  Directory  of  Opportunities  for  the  Vocational  Training  of  Women  in  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  Mary  Ellis  Thompson.  Bureau  of  Information  Wo- 
man's Committee,  Council  of  National  Defense,  Penn.sylvania  Division,  1919. 

Opportunities  for  War  Time  Training  for  Women  in  New  York  City,  Directory. 
Compiled  and  published  by  The  Clearing  House  for  War  Time  Training  for 
Women  in  cooperation  with  the  Intercollegiate  Bureau  of  Occupation,  lDlS-19, 

Social  Agencies,  Eleanor  Lattimore.  City  Committee,  National  Board  Young 
Women's  Christian  Associations,  pp.  12-13,  1918. 

Vocational  Guidance  Bibliography.  Books  on  Choosing  a  Career,  I.  David  Cohen, 
director  Vocational  Guidance  Clinic,  College  of  Education  of  New  York,  1920. 

War  Emergency  Courses  for  Women,  Directory  and  Bibliography  of  Books  and 
I'amphlets,  edited  by  Courses  of  Instruction  Committee,  Woman's  Conunittee, 
State  Council  of  Defense,  120  West  Adams  Street,  Chicago,  111.,  1918. 

Women's  Work  from  Primitive  Times  to  the  .Present.  Topics  and  references 
for  the  help  of  discussional  groups,  Genevieve  M.  Fox.  National  Board 
Y.  W.  C.  A.,  1919. 

Women  in  Modern  Industry,  An  outline  and  bibliography  presenting  the  subject 
of  employment,  wages,  hazards  to  health  and  morals,  protective  legislation^ 
Grace  Darling.    Stout  Institute,  1914. 


AVAILABLE  BULLETINS  OF  THE  FEDERAL  BOARD  FOR 
VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION. 


Annual  report. 

The      Vocational      Summary,      publisliod 
onthly    by    the    Federal    Board    for    Voca- 
ional  Education. 

Bulletin   No.    12.  Emergency   War   Train- 

g    for'   Airplane    Mechanics — Engine    Re- 

irmen,  Woodworkers,  Riggere,  and  Sheet- 
etal  AVorkers. 

Bulletin     No.     13.    (Agricultural     Series, 

).  1.)  Agricultural  Education — Organi- 
sation and  Administration. 

Bulletin  No.  15.  (Reeducation  Series, 
No.  3.)  The  Evolution  of  National  Sys- 
tems of  Vocational  Reeducation  for  Disabled 
Soldiers  and  Sailors. 

Bulletin  No.  10.  Emergency  War  Train- 
ing for  Radio  Jlechanics  and  Radio  Opera- 
tors. 

Bulletin  No.  17.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  1.)  Trade  and  Industrial  Edu- 
cation— Organization  and  Administration. 

Bulletin  No.  18.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  2.)     Evening  Industrial  Schools. 

Bulletin  No.  10.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  3.)  Part-time  Trade  and  In- 
dustrial Education. 

Bulletin  No.  20.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  4.)  Buildings  and  Equipment 
for  Schools  and  (Hasses  in  Trade  and  In- 
dustrial  Subjects. 

Bulletin     No.     21.    (Agricultural     Series, 
No.  3.)      The  Home  I'roject  as  a  Phase  of 
Vocational   Agricultural   Education. 
.    Bulletin   No.   22.    (Commetcial   Education 
Series,  No.   1.)      Retail  Selling. 

Bul'«tin  No.  23.  (Home  Economics  Series, 
No.  1.)  ('lothing  for  the  Family.  On  sale 
by  Supt.  of  Documents,  Gov't  Printing 
Office.     15c.  per  copy. 

Bulletin  No.  24.  (Commercial  Education 
Series,  No.  2.)  Vocational  Education  for 
Foreign  Trade  and   Shipping. 

Bulletin  No.  25.  (Reeducation  Series,  No. 
4.)     Ward  Occupations  in  Hospitals. 

Bulletin  No.  20.  (Agricultural  Series,  No. 
4.)  Agricultural  Education — Some  Problems 
in  State  Supervision. 

Bulletin  No.  27.  (.Vgricultural  Series,  No. 
5.)  The  Training  of  Teachers  of  Vocational 
Agriculture. 

Bulletin  No.  28.  (Home  Economics  Series, 
No.  2.)  Home  Economics  Education — Or- 
ganization and  Administration. 


Bulletin  No.  20.  (Reeducalion  Series,  No. 
5.)  Treatment  and  Training  for  the  Tuber- 
culous. 

Bulletin  No.  30.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  5.)  Evening  and  Part-time 
Schools  in  the  Textile  Industry  of  the 
Southern  States. 

Bulletin  No.  31.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  G.)  lYaining  Courses  in  Safety 
and   Hygiene  in  the  Building  Trades. 

Bulletin  No.  32.  (Reeducation  Series,  No. 
0.)  The  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Com- 
munity for  Arrested  Cases  of  Tuberculosis 
and  Their  Families. 

Bulletin  No.  33.  (Reeducation  Series,  No. 
7.)  Productive  Vocational  Workshops  for 
the  Rehabilitation  of  Tuberculous  and 
Otherwise  Disabled  Soldiers,  Sailors,  and 
Marines. 

Bulletin  No.  34.  (Commercial  Education 
Series,  No.  3.)  Commercial  Education — 
Organization   and    Administration. 

Bulletin  No.  35.  (Home  Ecomonics  Series, 
No.  3.)  Use  and  Preparation  of  Food. 
On  sale  by  Supt.  of  Documents,  Gov't 
Printing  OfQce.     20c.  per  copy. 

Bulletin  No.  30.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  7.)  Foreman  Training  Courses. 
Part  T. 

Bulletin  No.  30.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  7.)  Foreman  Trainiug  Courses. 
Part  II. 

B'alletin  No.  37.  (Home  Economics  Series, 
No.  4.)  Survey  of  the  Needs  in  the  Field 
of  Vocational   Home  Economics   Education. 

Bulletin  No.  38.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  8.)     General  Mining. 

Bulletin  No.  30.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  0.)  Coal-Mine  Gases.  On  sale 
by  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govern- 
ment  Printing  OfBce.     5c.  per  copy. 

Bulletin  No.  40.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.   10.)      Coal-Mine  Timbering. 

Bnlletin  No.  41.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  11.)     Coal-Mine  Ventilation. 

Bulletin  No.  42.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  12.)  Safety  Lamps.  On  sale 
by  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office.     10c.  per  copy. 

Bulletin  No.  43.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Series,  No.  8.)  The  Labor  Audit.  A 
Method  of  Industrial  Investigation. 

Bulletin  No.  44.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Series,  No.  5.)  The  Wage-setting 
Process. 

105 


106 


AVAILABLE   BULLETHSTS. 


Bullotin  No.  45.  (Employment  Manage- 
uiont  Sories,  No.  3.)      Joh  Spet-iflcations. 

Bulletiu  No.  4G.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Scries,  No.  0.)  The  Turnover  of 
Labor. 

Bulletin  No.  47.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Series,  No.  7.)  Industrial  Accidents 
and   Their   I'rcvention. 

Bulletin  No.  48.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Series,  No.  4.)  Employment  Manage- 
ment and  Industrial  Training. 

Bulletin  No.  49.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Scries,  No.  2.)  The  Selection  and 
Flaccmcnt  of  Employees. 

Bulletin  No.  50.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Series,  No.  1.)  Employment  Manage- 
ment :  Its  Rise  and  Scope. 

Bullotin  No.  51.  (Employment  Manage- 
ment Series,  No.  9.)  Bibliography  of  Em- 
ployment Management. 

Bulletin  No.  52.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  13.)  Theory  and  practice.  Out- 
lines of  Instruction  iu  Related  Subjects  for 


the  Machinist's  Trade  (including  General 
Trade  Subjects  for  Certain  Other  Occupa- 
tions). 

Bulletin  No.  5.3.  (Agricultural  Series,  No. 
G.)  Lessons  in  I'lant  I'roduction  for 
Southern  Schools. 

Bulletin  No.  54.  (Commercial  Education 
Series,  No.  4.)  Survey  of  Junior  Commer- 
cial Occupations.  Made  by  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  through. 
State  boards  for  A'ocational  education  in 
IG  States. 

Bulletin  No.  55.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  14.)  Compulsory  Tart-time 
School  Attendance  Laws. 

Bulletin  No.  56.  (Agricultural  Series,  No. 
No.  7.)  Lessons  in  Animal  Production  for 
Southern  Schools. 

Bulletin  No.  57.  (Industrial  Behabilita- 
tion  Series,  No.  1.)  Industrial  Itehabili- 
tation — A  Statement  of  I'olicies. 

Bulletin  No.  5S.  (Trade  and  Industrial 
Series,  No.  15.)  Trade  and  Industrial  Ed- 
ucation  for  Girls  and  Women. 


1 


qOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY. 

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